Thetemporarytaxofapitcherofwineforeveryacre，[37]whichwasoneoftheexactionsofChilpericandFredegonda，relatedonlytotheRomans。AndindeeditwasnottheFranksthattoretherollsofthosetaxes，buttheclergy，whointhosedayswereallRomans。[38]Theburdenofthistaxlaychieflyontheinhabitantsofthetowns；[39]nowthesewerealmostallinhabitedbyRomans。
GregoryofToursrelates[40]thatacertainjudgewasobliged，afterthedeathofChilperic，totakerefugeinachurch，forhavingunderthereignofthatprinceorderedtaxestobeleviedonseveralFrankswhointhereignofChildebertwereingenui，orfree—born：MultosdeFrancis，quitemporeChildebertiregisingenuifuerant，publicotributosubegit。
ThereforetheFrankswhowerenotbondmenpaidnotaxes。
ThereisnotagrammarianbutwouldturnpaletoseehowtheAbbéduBoshasinterpretedthispassage。[41]Heobservesthatinthosedaysthefreedmenwerealsocalledingenui。UponthissuppositionherenderstheLatinwordingenui，bythewords\"freedfromtaxes\"；aphrasewhichweindeedmayuseinFrench，aswesay\"freedfromcares，\"\"freedfrompunishments\"；butintheLatintonguesuchexpressionsasingenuiatributis，libertiniatributis，manumissitributorum，wouldbequitemonstrous。
Parthenius，saysGregoryofTours，[42]hadliketohavebeenputtodeathbytheFranksforsubjectingthemtotaxes。TheAbbéduBosfindinghimselfhardpressedbythispassage[43]verycoollyassumesthethinginquestion；itwas，sayshe，asurcharge。
WefindinthelawoftheVisigoths[44]thatwhenaBarbarianhadseizedupontheestateofaRoman，thejudgeobligedhimtosellit，totheendthatthisestatemightcontinuetobetributary；consequentlytheBarbarianspaidnolandtaxes。[45]
TheAbbéduBos，[46]whowouldfainhavetheVisigothssubjectedtotaxes，[47]quitstheliteralandspiritualsenseofthelaw，andpretends，uponnootherindeedthananimaginaryfoundation，thatbetweentheestablishmentoftheGothsandthislaw，therehadbeenanaugmentationoftaxeswhichrelatedonlytotheRomans。ButnonebutFatherHarduinareallowedthustoexerciseanarbitrarypoweroverfacts。
Thislearnedauthor[48]hasrummagedJustinian’sCode[49]insearchoflawstoprovethat，amongtheRomans，themilitarybeneficesweresubjecttotaxes。WhencehewouldinferthatthesameheldgoodwithregardtofiefsorbeneficesamongtheFranks。ButtheopinionthatourfiefsderivetheiroriginfromthatInstitutionoftheRomansisatpresentexploded；itobtainedonlyatatimewhentheRomanhistory，notours，waswellunderstood，andourancientrecordslayburiedinobscurityanddust。
ButtheAbbéisinthewrongtoquoteCassiodorus，andtomakeuseofwhatwastransactinginItaly，andinthepartofGaulsubjecttoTheodoric，inordertoacquaintuswiththepracticeestablishedamongtheFranks；thesearethingswhichmustnotbeconfounded。Iproposetoshow，sometimeorother，inacertainwork，thattheplanofthemonarchyoftheOstrogothswasentirelydifferentfromthatofanyothergovernmentfoundedinthosedaysbytheotherBarbariannations；andthatsofarfromourbeingentitledtoaffirmthatapracticeobtainedamongtheFranksbecauseitwasestablishedamongtheOstrogoths，wehaveonthecontraryjustreasontothinkthatacustomoftheOstrogothswasnotinforceamongtheFranks。
Thehardesttaskforpersonsofextensiveeruditionistoseektheirproofsinsuchpassagesasbearuponthesubject，andtofind，ifwemaybeallowedtoexpressourselvesinastronomicalterms，thepositionofthesun。
Thesameauthormakesawronguseofthecapitularies，aswellasofthehistoriansandlawsofthebarbarousnations。WhenhewantstheFrankstopaytaxes，heappliestofreemenwhatcanbeunderstoodonlyofbondmen；[50]whenhespeaksoftheirmilitaryservice，heappliestobondmenwhatcanneverrelatebuttofreemen。[51]
13。OfTaxespaidbytheRomansandGaulsintheMonarchyoftheFranks。
Imighthereexaminewhether，aftertheGaulsandRomanswereconquered，theycontinuedtopaythetaxestowhichtheyweresubjectundertheemperors。But，forthesakeofbrevity，Ishallbesatisfiedwithobservingthat，iftheypaidtheminthebeginning，theyweresoonafterexempted，andthatthosetaxeswerechangedintoamilitaryservice。
For，Iconfess，IcanhardlyconceivehowtheFranksshouldhavebeenatfirstsuchgreatfriends，andafterwardssuchsuddenandviolentenemies，totaxes。
Acapitulary[52]ofLouistheDebonnaireexplainsextremelywellthesituationofthefreemeninthemonarchyoftheFranks。SometroopsofGothsorIberians，flyingfromtheoppressionoftheMoors，werereceivedintoLouis’dominions。Theagreementmadewiththemwasthat，likeotherfreemen，theyshouldfollowtheircounttothearmy；andthatuponamarchtheyshouldmountguardandpatrolunderthecommandalsooftheircount；andthattheyshouldfurnishhorsesandcarriagesforbaggagetotheking’scommissaries，[53]andtotheambassadorsintheirwaytoorfromcourt；andthattheyshouldnotbecompelledtopayanyfurtherimpost，butshouldbetreatedastheotherfreemen。
Itcannotbesaidthatthesewerenewusagesintroducedatthecommencementofthesecondrace。Thismustbereferredatleasttothemiddleortotheendofthefirst。Acapitularyoftheyear864[54]
saysinexpresstermsthatitwastheancientcustomforfreementoperformmilitaryservice，andtofurnishlikewisethehorsesandcarriagesabove—mentioned；dutiesparticulartothemselves，andfromwhichthosewhopossessedthefiefswereexempt，asIshallprovehereafter。
Thisisnotall；therewasaregulationwhichhardlypermittedtheimposingoftaxesonthosefreemen。[55]Hewhohadfourmanorswasobligedtomarchagainsttheenemy：[56]hewhohadbutthreewasjoinedwithafreemanthathadonlyone；thelatterborethefourthpartoftheother’scharges，andstayedathome。Inlikemanner，theyjoinedtwofreemenwhohadeachtwomanors；hewhowenttothearmyhadhalfhischargesbornebyhimwhostayedathome。
Again，wehaveaninfinitenumberofcharters，inwhichtheprivilegesoffiefsaregrantedtolandsordistrictspossessedbyfreemen，andofwhichIshallmakefurthermentionhereafter。[57]Theselandsareexemptedfromallthedutiesorserviceswhichwererequiredofthembythecounts，andbytherestoftheking’sofficers；andasalltheseservicesareparticularlyenumeratedwithoutmakinganymentionoftaxes，itismanifestthatnotaxeswereimposeduponthem。
ItwasverynaturalthattheRomansystemoftaxationshouldofitselffalloutofuseinthemonarchyoftheFranks；itwasamostcomplicateddevice，farabovetheconception，andwidefromtheplanofthosesimplepeople。WeretheTartarstooverrunEurope，weshouldfinditverydifficulttomakethemcomprehendwhatismeantbyourfinanciers。
TheanonymousauthorofthelifeofLouistheDebonnaire，[58]speakingofthecountsandotherofficersofthenationoftheFranks，whomCharlemagneestablishedinAquitania，says，thatheentrustedthemwiththecareofdefendingthefrontiers，asalsowiththemilitarypowerandthedirectionofthedemesnesbelongingtothecrown。Thisshowsthestateoftheroyalrevenuesunderthesecondrace。Theprincehadkepthisdemesnesinhisownhands，andemployedhisbondmeninimprovingthem。Buttheindictions，thecapitationsandotherimpostsraisedatthetimeoftheemperorsonthepersonsorgoodsoffreemenhadbeenchangedintoanobligationofdefendingthefrontiersandmarchingagainsttheenemy。
Inthesamehistory，[59]wefindthatLouistheDebonnaire，havingbeentowaituponhisfatherinGermany，thisprinceaskedhim，whyhe，whowasacrownedhead，cametobesopoor：towhichLouismadeanswerthathewasonlyanominalking，andthatthegreatlordswerepossessedofalmostallhisdemesnes；thatCharlemagne，beingapprehensivelestthisyoungprinceshouldforfeittheiraffection，ifheattemptedhimselftoresumewhathehadinconsideratelygranted，appointedcommissariestorestorethingstotheirformersituation。
Thebishops，writing[60]toLouis，brotherofCharlestheBald，usedthesewords：\"Takecareofyourlands，thatyoumaynotbeobligedtotravelcontinuallybythehousesoftheclergy，andtotiretheirbondmenwithcarriages。Manageyouraffairs，\"continuethey，\"insuchamannerthatyoumayhaveenoughtoliveupon，andtoreceiveembassies。\"
Itisevidentthattheking’srevenuesinthosedaysconsistedoftheirdemesnes。[61]
14。OfwhattheycalledCensus。AftertheBarbarianshadquittedtheirowncountry，theyweredesirousofreducingtheirusagesintowriting；
butastheyfounddifficultyinwritingGermanwordswithRomanletters，theypublishedtheselawsinLatin。
Intheconfusionandrapidityoftheconquest，mostthingschangedtheirnature；inorder，however，toexpressthem，theywereobligedtomakeuseofsucholdLatinwordsasweremostanalogoustothenewusages。
Thus，whateverwaslikelytorevivetheideaoftheancientcensusoftheRomanstheycalledbythenameofcensustributum，[62]andwhenthingshadnorelationatalltotheRomancensus，theyexpressed，aswellastheycould，theGermanwordsbyRomanletters；thustheyformedthewordfredum，onwhichIshallhaveoccasiontodescantinthefollowingchapters。
Thewordscensusandtributumhavingbeenemployedinanarbitrarymanner，thishasthrownsomeobscurityonthesignificationinwhichthesewordswereusedunderourprincesofthefirstandsecondrace。
Andmodernauthors[63]whohaveadoptedparticularsystems，havingfoundthesewordsinthewritingsofthosedays，imaginedthatwhatwasthencalledcensuswasexactlythecensusoftheRomans；andthencetheyinferredthisconsequence，thatourkingsofthefirsttworaceshadputthemselvesintheplaceoftheRomanemperors，andmadenochangeintheiradministration。[64]Besides，asparticulardutiesraisedunderthesecondracewerebychangeandbycertainrestrictionsconvertedintoothers，[65]theyinferredthencethatthesedutieswerethecensusoftheRomans；andas，sincethemodernregulations，theyfoundthatthecrowndemesneswereabsolutelyunalienable，theypretendedthatthosedutieswhichrepresentedtheRomancensus，anddidnotformapartofthedemesnes，weremereusurpation。Iomittheotherconsequences。
Toapplytheideasofthepresenttimetodistantagesisthemostfruitfulsourceoferror。Tothosepeoplewhowanttomodernizealltheancientages，IshallsaywhattheEgyptianpriestssaidtoSolon，\"O
Athenians，youaremerechildren！\"[66]
15。ThatwhattheycalledCensuswasraisedonlyontheBondmenandnotontheFreemen。Theking，theclergy，andthelordsraisedregulartaxes，eachonthebondmenoftheirrespectivedemesnes。Iproveitwithrespecttotheking，bythecapitularydeVillis；withregardtotheclergy，bythecodesofthelawsoftheBarbarians[67]andinrelationtothelords，bytheregulationswhichCharlemagnemadeconcerningthissubject。[68]
Thesetaxeswerecalledcensus；theywereeconomicalandnotfiscalclaims，entirelyprivateduesandnotpublictaxes。
Iaffirmthatwhattheycalledcensusatthattimewasataxraiseduponthebondmen。ThisIprovebyaformularyofMarculfuscontainingapermissionfromthekingtoenterintoholyorders，providedthepersonsbefreeborn，[69]andnotenrolledintheregisterofthecensus。IproveitalsobyacommissionfromCharlemagnetoacount[70]whomhehadsentintoSaxony，whichcontainstheenfranchisementoftheSaxonsforhavingembracedChristianity，andisproperlyacharteroffreedom。[71]Thisprincerestoresthemtotheirformercivilliberty，[72]andexemptsthemfrompayingthecensus，Itwas，therefore，thesamethingtobeabondmanastopaythecensus，tobefreeasnottopayit。
ByakindofletterspatentofthesameprinceinfavouroftheSpaniards，[73]whohadbeenreceivedintothemonarchy，thecountsareforbiddentodemandanycensusofthem，ortodeprivethemoftheirlands。ThatstrangersupontheircomingtoFranceweretreatedasbondmenisathingwellknown；andCharlemagnebeingdesiroustheyshouldbeconsideredasfreemen，sincehewouldhavethembeproprietorsoftheirlands，forbadthedemandinganycensusofthem。
AcapitularyofCharlestheBald，[74]giveninfavourofthoseverySpaniards，ordersthemtobetreatedliketheotherFranks，andforbidstherequiringanycensusofthem；consequentlythiscensuswasnotpaidbyfreemen。
ThethirtietharticleoftheedictofPistesreformstheabusebywhichseveralofthehusbandmenbelongingtothekingortothechurchsoldthelandsdependentontheirmanorstoecclesiasticsortopeopleoftheircondition，reservingonlyasmallcottagetothemselves；bywhichmeanstheyavoidedpayingthecensus；anditordainsthatthingsshouldberestoredtotheirprimitivesituation：thecensuswas，therefore，ataxpeculiartobondmen。
Thencealsoitfollowsthattherewasnogeneralcensusinthemonarchy；
andthisisclearfromagreatnumberofpassages。Forwhatcouldbethemeaningofthiscapitulary？[75]\"Weordainthattheroyalcensusshouldbeleviedinallplaceswhereformerlyitwaslawfullylevied。\"[76]WhatcouldbethemeaningofthatinwhichCharlemagne[77]ordershiscommissariesintheprovincestomakeanexactinquiryintoallthecensusthatbelongedinformertimestotheking’sdemesne？[78]Andofthat[79]inwhichhedisposesofthecensuspaidbythose[80]ofwhomtheyaredemanded？Whatcanthatothercapitularymean[81]inwhichweread，\"Ifanypersonhasacquiredatributaryland[82]onwhichwewereaccustomedtolevythecensus？\"Andthatother，infine，[83]inwhichCharlestheBald[84]makesmentionoffeudallandswhosecensushadfromtimeimmemorialbelongedtotheking。
Observe。thattherearesomepassageswhichseematfirstsighttobecontrarytowhatIhavesaid，andyetconfirmit。Wehavealreadyseenthatthefreemeninthemonarchywereobligedonlytofurnishparticularcarriages；thecapitularyjustnowcitedgivestothisthenameofcensus，andopposesittothecensuspaidbythebondmen。
Besides，theedictofPistes[85]noticesthosefreemenwhoareobligedtopaytheroyalcensusfortheirheadandfortheircottages，[86]andwhohadsoldthemselvesduringthefamine。Thekingordersthemtoberansomed。Thisisbecausethosewhoweremanumittedbytheking’sletters[87]didnot，generallyspeaking，acquireafullandperfectliberty。[88]buttheypaidcensumincapite；andthesearethepeopleheremeant。
Wemust，therefore，waivetheideaofageneralanduniversalcensus，derivedfromthatoftheRomans，fromwhichtherightsofthelordsarealsosupposedtohavebeenderivedbyusurpation。WhatwascalledcensusintheFrenchmonarchy，independentlyoftheabusemadeofthatword，wasaparticulartaximposedonthebondmenbytheirmasters。
IbegthereadertoexcusethetroubleImustgivehimwithsuchanumberofcitations。IshouldbemoreconcisedidInotmeetwiththeAbbéduBos’bookontheestablishmentoftheFrenchmonarchyinGaul，continuallyinmyway。Nothingisagreaterobstacletoourprogressinknowledgethanabadperformanceofacelebratedauthor；because，beforeweinstruct，wemustbeginwithundeceiving。
16。OfthefeudalLordsorVassals。IhavenoticedthosevolunteersamongtheGermans，whohavefollowedtheirprincesintheirseveralexpeditions。Thesameusagecontinuedaftertheconquest。Tacitusmentionsthembythenameofcompanions；[89]theSaliclawbythatofmenwhohavevowedfealtytotheking；[90]theformulariesofMarculfus[91]bythatoftheking’sAntrustios；[92]theearliestFrenchhistoriansbythatofLeudes，[93]faithfulandloyal；andthoseoflaterdatebythatofvassalsandlords。[94]
IntheSalicandRipuarianlawswemeetwithaninfinitenumberofregulationsinregardtotheFranks，andonlywithafewfortheAntrustios。TheregulationsconcerningtheAntrustiosaredifferentfromthosewhichweremadefortheotherFranks；theyarefullofwhatrelatestothesettlingofthepropertyoftheFranks，butmentionnotawordconcerningthatoftheAntrustios。Thisisbecausethepropertyofthelatterwasregulatedratherbythepoliticalthanbythecivillaw，andwasthesharethatfelltoanarmy，andnotthepatrimonyofafamily。
Thegoodsreservedforthefeudallordswerecalledfiscalgoods，benefices，honours，andfiefs，bydifferentauthors，andindifferenttimes。[95]
Thereisnodoubtbutthefiefsatfirstwereatwill。[96]WefindinGregoryofTours[97]thatSunegisilusandGallomanusweredeprivedofalltheyheldoftheexchequer，andnomorewasleftthemthantheirrealproperty。WhenGontramraisedhisnephewChildeberttothethrone，hehadaprivateconferencewithhim，inwhichhenamedthepersonswhooughttobehonouredwith，andthosewhooughttobedeprivedof，thefiefs。[98]InaformularyofMarculfus，[99]thekinggivesinexchange，notonlythebeneficesheldbyhisexchequer，butlikewisethosewhichhadbeenheldbyanother。ThelawoftheLombardsopposesthebeneficestoproperty。[100]Inthis，ourhistorians，theformularies，thecodesofthedifferentbarbarousnationsandallthemonumentsofthosedaysareunanimous。Infine，thewritersofthebookoffiefsinformus[101]thatatfirstthelordscouldtakethembackwhentheypleased，thatafterwardstheygrantedthemforthespaceofayear，[102]andthatatlengththeygavethemforlife。
17。OfthemilitaryServiceofFreemen。Twosortsofpeoplewereboundtomilitaryservice；thegreatandlesservassals，whowereobligedinconsequenceoftheirfief；andthefreemen，whetherFranks，Romans，orGauls，whoservedunderthecountandwerecommandedbyhimandhisofficers。
Thenameoffreemenwasgiventothose，whoontheonehandhadnobenefitsorfiefs，andontheotherwerenotsubjecttothebaseservicesofvillainage；thelandstheypossessedwerewhattheycalledallodialestates。
Thecountsassembledthefreemen，[103]andledthemagainsttheenemy；
theyhadofficersunderthemwhowerecalledvicars；[104]andasallthefreemenweredividedintohundreds，whichconstitutedwhattheycalledaborough，thecountshadalsoofficersunderthem，whoweredenominatedcentenarii，andledthefreemenoftheborough，ortheirhundreds，tothefield。[105]
ThisdivisionintohundredsisposteriortotheestablishmentoftheFranksinGaul。ItwasmadebyClothariusandChildebert，withaviewofobligingeachdistricttoanswerfortherobberiescommittedintheirdivision；thiswefindinthedecreesofthoseprinces。[106]A
regulationofthiskindistothisverydayobservedinEngland。
Asthecountsledthefreemenagainsttheenemy，thefeudallordscommandedalsotheirvassalsorrear—vassals；andthebishops，abbots，ortheiradvocates[107]likewisecommandedtheirs。[108]
Thebishopsweregreatlyembarrassedandinconsistentwiththemselves；[109]theyrequestedCharlemagnenottoobligethemanylongertomilitaryservice；andwhenhegrantedtheirrequest，theycomplainedthathehaddeprivedthemofthepublicesteem；sothatthisprincewasobligedtojustifyhisintentionsuponthishead。Bethatasitmay，whentheywereexemptedfrommarchingagainsttheenemy，Idonotfindthattheirvassalswereledbythecounts；onthecontrary，weseethatthekingsorthebishopschoseoneoftheirfeudatoriestoconductthem。[110]
InaCapitularyofLouistheDebonnaire，[111]thisprincedistinguishesthreesortsofvassals，thosebelongingtotheking，thosetothebishops，andthosetothecounts。Thevassalsofafeudallordwerenotledagainsttheenemybythecount，exceptsomeemploymentintheking’shouseholdhinderedthelordhimselffromcommandingthem。[112]
Butwhoisitthatledthefeudallordsintothefield？Nodoubtthekinghimself，whowas？alwaysattheheadofhisfaithfulvassals。Henceweconstantlyfindinthecapitulariesadistinctionmadebetweentheking’svassalsandthoseofthebishops，[113]Suchbraveandmagnanimousprincesasourkingsdidnottakethefieldtoputthemselvesattheheadofanecclesiasticmilitia；thesewerenotthementheychosetoconquerortodiewith。
Buttheselordslikewisecarriedtheirvassalsandrear—vassalswiththem，aswecanprovebythecapitularyinwhichCharlemagneordainsthateveryfreemanwhohasfourmanors，eitherinhisownpropertyorasabeneficefromsomebodyelse，shouldmarchagainsttheenemyorfollowhislord。[114]ItisevidentthatCharlemagnemeansthatthepersonwhohadamanorofhisownshouldmarchunderthecountandhewhoheldabeneficeofalordshouldsetoutalongwithhim。
AndyettheAbbéduBospretends[115]that，whenmentionismadeinthecapitulariesoftenantswhodependedonaparticularlord，noothersaremeantthanbondmen；andhegroundshisopiniononthelawoftheVisigothsandthepracticeofthatnation。Itismuchbettertorelyonthecapitulariesthemselves；thatwhichIhavejustquotedsaysexpresslythecontrary。ThetreatybetweenCharlestheBaldandhisbrothersnoticesalsothosefreemenwhomightchoosetofolloweitheralordortheking；andthisregulationisconformabletoagreatmanyothers。
Wemay，therefore，concludethattherewerethreesortsofmilitaryservices；thatoftheking’svassals，whohadothervassalsunderthem；
thatofthebishopsoroftheotherclergyandtheirvassals，and，infine，thatofthecount，whocommandedthefreemen。
Notbutthevassalsmightbealsosubjecttothecount；asthosewhohaveaparticularcommandaresubordinatetohimwhoisinvestedwithamoregeneralauthority。
Weevenfindthatthecountandtheking’scommissariesmightobligethemtopaythefinewhentheyhadnotfulfilledtheengagementsoftheirfief。Inlikemanner，iftheking’svassalscommittedanyoutrage[116]theyweresubjecttothecorrectionofthecount，unlesstheychoosetosubmitrathertothatoftheking。
18。OfthedoubleService。Itwasafundamentalprincipleofthemonarchythatwhosoeverwassubjecttothemilitarypowerofanotherpersonwassubjectalsotohisciviljurisdiction。ThustheCapitularyofLouistheDebonnaire，[117]intheyear815，makesthemilitarypowerofthecountandhisciviljurisdictionoverthefreemenkeepalwaysanequalpace。Thustheplacita[118]ofthecountwhocarriedthefreemenagainsttheenemywerecalledtheplacitaofthefreemen；[119]whenceundoubtedlycamethismaxim，thatthequestionsrelatingtolibertycouldbedecidedonlyinthecount’splacita，andnotinthoseofhisofficers。Thusthecountneverledthevassals[120]belongingtothebishops，ortotheabbots，againsttheenemy，becausetheywerenotsubjecttohisciviljurisdiction。Thushenevercommandedtherear—vassalsbelongingtotheking’svassals。ThustheglossaryoftheEnglishlawsinformsus[121]thatthosetowhomtheSaxonsgavethenameofCoples[122]werebytheNormanscalledcounts，orcompanions，becausetheysharedthejusticiaryfineswiththeking。Thusweseethatatalltimesthedutyofavassaltowardshislord[123]wastobeararms[124]
andtotryhispeersinhiscourt。
Oneofthereasonswhichproducedthisconnectionbetweenthejudiciaryrightandthatofleadingtheforcesagainsttheenemywasbecausethepersonwholedthemexactedatthesametimethepaymentofthefiscalduties，whichconsistedinsomecarriageservicesduebythefreemen，andingeneral，incertainjudiciaryprofits，ofwhichweshalltreathereafter。
Thelordshadtherightofadministeringjusticeintheirfief，bythesameprincipleasthecountshaditintheircounties。And，indeed，thecountiesintheseveralvariationsthathappenedatdifferenttimesalwaysfollowedthevariationsofthefiefs；bothweregovernedbythesameplan，andbythesameprinciples。Inaword，thecountsintheircountieswerelords，andthelordsintheirseigniorieswerecounts。
Ithasbeenamistaketoconsiderthecountsascivilofficers，andthedukesasmilitarycommanders。Bothwereequallycivilandmilitaryofficers：[125]thewholedifferenceconsistedintheduke’shavingseveralcountsunderhim，thoughtherewerecountswhohadnodukeoverthem，aswelearnfromFredegarius。[126]
