Astheenjoymentofliberty，andevenitssupportandpreservation，consistsineveryman’sbeingallowedtospeakhisthoughts，andtolayopenhissentiments，acitizeninthisstatewillsayorwritewhateverthelawsdonotexpresslyforbidtobesaidorwritten。
Apeoplelikethis，beingalwaysinaferment，aremoreeasilyconductedbytheirpassionsthanbyreason，whichneverproducesanygreateffectinthemindofman；itisthereforeeasyforthosewhogoverntomakethemundertakeenterprisescontrarytotheirtrueinterest。
Thisnationispassionatelyfondofliberty，becausethislibertyisreal；anditispossibleforit，initsdefence，tosacrificeitswealth，itsease，itsinterest，andtosupporttheburdenoftheheaviesttaxes，evensuchasadespoticprincedurstnotlayuponhissubjects。
Butasthepeoplehaveacertainknowledgeofthenecessityofsubmittingtothosetaxes，theypaythemfromthewell—foundedhopeoftheirdiscontinuance；theirburdensareheavy，buttheydonotfeeltheirweight；whilstinotherstatestheuneasinessisinfinitelygreaterthantheevil。
Thisnationmustthereforehaveafixedandcertaincredit，becauseitborrowsofitselfandpaysitself。Itispossibleforittoundertakethingsaboveitsnaturalstrength，andemployagainstitsenemiesimmensesumsoffictitiousriches，whichthecreditandnatureofthegovernmentmayrenderreal。
Topreserveitsliberty，itborrowsofitssubjects：andthesubjects，seeingthatitscreditwouldbelostifeveritwereconquered，haveanewmotivetomakefresheffortsindefenceofitsliberty。
Thisnation，inhabitinganisland，isnotfondofconquering，becauseitwouldbeweakenedbydistantconquests——especiallyasthesoiloftheislandisgood，forithasthennoneedofenrichingitselfbywar；andasnocitizenissubjecttoanother，eachsetsagreatervalueonhisownlibertythanonthegloryofoneoranynumberofcitizens。
Militarymenarethereregardedasbelongingtoaprofessionwhichmaybeusefulbutisoftendangerous，andasmenwhoseveryservicesareburdensometothenation：civilqualificationsarethereforemoreesteemedthanthemilitary。
Thisnation，whichlibertyandthelawsrendereasy，onbeingfreedfromperniciousprejudices，hasbecomeatradingpeople；andasithassomeofthoseprimitivematerialsoftradeoutofwhicharemanufacturedsuchthingsasfromtheartist’shandreceiveaconsiderablevalue，ithasmadesettlementspropertoprocuretheenjoymentofthisgiftofheaveninitsfullestextent。
Asthisnationissituatedtowardsthenorth，andhasmanysuperfluouscommodities，itmustwantalsoagreatamountofmerchandisewhichitsclimatewillnotproduce：ithasthereforeenteredintoagreatandnecessaryintercoursewiththesouthernnations；andmakingchoiceofthosestateswhomitiswillingtofavourwithanadvantageouscommerce，itentersintosuchtreatieswiththenationithaschosenasarereciprocallyusefultoboth。
Inastatewhere，ontheonehand，theopulenceisextreme，andontheotherthetaxesareexcessive，theyarehardlyabletoliveonasmallfortunewithoutindustry。Many，therefore，underapretenceoftravelling，orofhealth，retirefromamongthem，andgoinsearchofplenty，eventothecountriesofslavery。
Atradingnationhasaprodigiousnumberoflittleparticularinterests；
itmaytheninjureorbeinjuredinaninfinitenumberofways。Thusitbecomesimmoderatelyjealous，andismoreafflictedattheprosperityofothersthanitrejoicesatitsown。
Anditslaws，otherwisemildandeasy，maybesorigidwithrespecttothetradeandnavigationcarriedonwithit，thatitmayseemtotradeonlywithenemies。
Ifthisnationsendscoloniesabroad，itmustratherbetoextenditscommercethanitsdominion。
Asmenarefondofintroducingintootherplaceswhattheyhaveestablishedamongthemselves，theyhavegiventhepeopleofthecoloniestheirownformofgovernment；andthisgovernmentcarryingprosperityalongwithit，theyhaveraisedgreatnationsintheforeststheyweresenttoinhabit。
Havingformerlysubduedaneighbouringnation，whichbyitssituation，thegoodnessofitsports，andthenatureofitsproducts，inspiresitwithjealousy，thoughithasgiventhisnationitsownlaws，yetitholdsitingreatdependence：thesubjectstherearefreeandthestateitselfinslavery。
Theconqueredstatehasanexcellentcivilgovernment，butisoppressedbythelawofnations。Lawsareimposedbyonecountryontheother，andthesearesuchasrenderitsprosperityprecariousanddependentonthewillofamaster。
Therulingnationinhabitingalargeisland，andbeinginpossessionofagreattrade，haswithextraordinaryeasegrownpowerfulatsea；andasthepreservationofitslibertiesrequiresthatitshouldhaveneitherstrongholdsnorfortressesnorlandforces，ithasoccasionforaformidablenavytodefenditagainstinvasions；anavywhichmustbesuperiortothatofallotherpowers，who，employingtheirtreasuresinwarsonland，havenotsufficientforthoseatsea。
Theempireoftheseahasalwaysgiventhosewhohaveenjoyeditanaturalpride；because，thinkingthemselvescapableofextendingtheirinsultswherevertheyplease，theyimaginethattheirpowerisasboundlessastheocean。
Thisnationhasagreatinfluenceintheaffairsofitsneighbours；forasitspowerisnotemployedinconquests，itsfriendshipismorecourted，anditsresentmentmoredreaded，thancouldnaturallybeexpectedfromtheinconstancyofitsgovernment，anditsdomesticdivisions。
Thusitisthefateoftheexecutivepowertobealmostalwaysdisturbedathomeandrespectedabroad。
ShouldthisnationonsomeoccasionsbecomethecentreofthenegotiationsofEurope，probityandgoodfaithwouldbecarriedtoagreaterheightthaninotherplaces；becausetheministersbeingfrequentlyobligedtojustifytheirconductbeforeapopularcouncil，theirnegotiationscouldnotbesecret；andtheywouldbeforcedtobe，inthisrespect，alittlemorehonest。
Besides，astheywouldinsomesortbeanswerablefortheeventswhichanirregularconductmightproduce，thesurest，thesafestwayforthemwouldbetotakethestraightestpath。
Ifthenobleswereformerlypossessedofanimmoderatepower，andthemonarchhadfoundthemeansofabasingthembyraisingthepeople，thepointofextremeservitudemusthavebeenthatbetweenhumblingthenobilityandthatinwhichthepeoplebegantofeeltheirpower。
Thusthisnation，havingbeenformerlysubjecttoanarbitrarypower，onmanyoccasionspreservesthestyleofit，insuchamannerastoletusfrequentlyseeuponthefoundationofafreegovernmenttheformofanabsolutemonarchy。
Withregardtoreligion，asinthisstateeverysubjecthasafreewill，andmustconsequentlybeeitherconductedbythelightofhisownmindorbythecapriceoffancy，itnecessarilyfollowsthateveryonemusteitherlookuponallreligionwithindifference，bywhichmeanstheyareledtoembracetheestablishedreligion，ortheymustbezealousforreligioningeneral，bywhichmeansthenumberofsectsisincreased。
Itisnotimpossiblebutthatinthisnationtheremaybemenofnoreligion，whowouldnot，however，beartobeobligedtochangethatwhichtheywouldchoose，iftheycaredtochooseany；fortheywouldimmediatelyperceivethattheirlivesandfortunesarenotmorepeculiarlytheirsthantheirmannerofthinking，andthatwhoeverwoulddeprivethemoftheonemightevenwithbetterreasontakeawaytheother。
If，amongthedifferentreligions，thereisonethathasbeenattemptedtobeestablishedbymethodsofslavery，itmusttherebeodious；
becauseaswejudgeofthingsbytheappendageswejoinwiththem，itcouldneverpresentitselftothemindinconjunctionwiththeideaofliberty。
Thelawsagainstthosewhoprofessthisreligioncouldnot，however，beofthesanguinarykind；forlibertycanneverinflictsuchpunishments；
buttheymaybesorigorousastodoallthemischiefthatcanbedoneincoldblood。
Itispossiblethatathousandcircumstancesmightconcurtogivetheclergysolittlecredit，thatothercitizensmayhavemore。Therefore，insteadofaseparation，theyhavechosenrathertosupportthesameburdensasthelaity，andinthisrespecttomakeonlyonebodywiththem；butastheyalwaysseektoconciliatetherespectofthepeople，theydistinguishthemselvesbyamoreretiredlife，aconductmorereserved，andagreaterpurityofmanners。
Theclergynotbeingabletoprotectreligion，nortobeprotectedbyit，onlyseektopersuade；theirpensthereforefurnishuswithexcellentworksinproofofarevelationandoftheprovidenceoftheSupremeBeing。
Yetthestatepreventsthesittingoftheirassemblies，anddoesnotsufferthemtocorrecttheirownabuses；itchoosesthus，throughacapriceofliberty，rathertoleavetheirreformationimperfectthantosuffertheclergytobethereformers。
Thosedignitieswhichmakeafundamentalpartoftheconstitutionaremorefixedthanelsewhere；but，ontheotherhand，thegreatinthiscountryoflibertyareneareruponalevelwiththepeople；theirranksaremoreseparated，andtheirpersonsmoreconfounded。
Asthosewhogovernhaveapowerwhich，insomemeasure，hasneedoffreshvigoureveryday，theyhaveagreaterregardforsuchasareusefultothemthanforthosewhoonlycontributetotheiramusement：wesee，therefore，fewercourtiers，flatterers，andparasites；inshort，fewerofallthosewhomaketheirownadvantageofthefollyofthegreat。
Menarelessesteemedforfrivoloustalentsandattainmentsthanforessentialqualities；andofthiskindtherearebuttwo，richesandpersonalmerit。
Theyenjoyasolidluxury，founded，notontherefinementsofvanity，butonthatofrealwants；theyasknothingofnaturebutwhatnaturecanbestow。
Therichenjoyagreatsuperfluityoffortune，andyethavenorelishforfrivolousamusements；thus，manyhavingmorewealththanopportunitiesofexpense，employitinafantasticmanner：inthisnationtheyhavemorejudgmentthantaste。
Astheyarealwaysemployedabouttheirowninterest，theyhavenotthatpolitenesswhichisfoundedonindolence；andtheyreallyhavenotleisuretoattainit。
TheeraofRomanpolitenessisthesameasthatoftheestablishmentofarbitrarypower。Anabsolutegovernmentproducesindolence，andthisgivesbirthtopoliteness。
Themorepeoplethereareinanationwhorequirecircumspectbehaviour，andcarenottodisplease，themorethereisofpoliteness。Butitisratherthepolitenessofmoralsthanthatofmannerswhichoughttodistinguishusfrombarbarousnations。
Inacountrywhereeverymanhas，insomesort，ashareintheadministrationofthegovernment，thewomenoughtscarcelytolivewiththemen。Theyarethereforemodest，thatis，timid；andthistimidityconstitutestheirvirtue：whilstthemenwithoutatasteforgallantryplungethemselvesintoadebauchery，whichleavesthematleisure，andintheenjoymentoftheirfullliberty。
Theirlawsnotbeingmadeforoneindividualmorethananother，eachconsidershimselfamonarch；and，indeed，themenofthisnationareratherconfederatesthanfellow—subjects。
Astheclimatehasgivenmanypersonsarestlessspiritandextendedviews，inacountrywheretheconstitutiongiveseverymanashareinitsgovernmentandpoliticalinterests，conversationgenerallyturnsuponpolitics：andweseemenspendtheirlivesinthecalculationofeventswhich，consideringthenatureofthingsandthecapricesoffortune，orratherofmen，canscarcelybethoughtsubjecttotherulesofcalculation。
Inafreenationitisveryoftenamatterofindifferencewhetherindividualsreasonwellorill；itissufficientthattheydoreason：
hencespringsthatlibertywhichisasecurityfromtheeffectsofthesereasonings。
Butinadespoticgovernment，itisequallyperniciouswhethertheyreasonwellorill；theirreasoningisalonesufficienttoshocktheprincipleofthatgovernment。
Manypeoplewhohavenodesireofpleasingabandonthemselvestotheirownparticularhumour；andmostofthosewhohavewitandingenuityareingeniousintormentingthemselves：filledwithcontemptordisgustforallthings，theyareunhappyamidstalltheblessingsthatcanpossiblycontributetopromotetheirfelicity。
Asnosubjectfearsanother，thewholenationisproud；fortheprideofkingsisfoundedonlyontheirindependence。
Freenationsarehaughty；othersmaymoreproperlybecalledvain。
Butasthesemenwhoarenaturallysoproudlivemuchbythemselves，theyarecommonlybashfulwhentheyappearamongstrangers；andwefrequentlyseethembehaveforaconsiderabletimewithanoddmixtureofprideandill—placedshame。
Thecharacterofthenationismoreparticularlydiscoveredintheirliteraryperformances，inwhichwefindthemenofthoughtanddeepmeditation。
Associetygivesusasenseoftheridiculeofmankind，retirementrendersusmorefittoreflectonthefollyofvice。Theirsatiricalwritingsaresharpandsevere，andwefindamongthemmanyJuvenals，withoutdiscoveringoneHorace。
Inmonarchiesextremelyabsolute，historiansbetraythetruth，becausetheyarenotatlibertytospeakit；instatesremarkablyfree，theybetraythetruth，becauseoftheirlibertyitself；whichalwaysproducesdivisions，everyonebecomingasgreataslavetotheprejudicesofhisfactionashecouldbeinadespoticstate。
Theirpoetshavemorefrequentlyanoriginalrudenessofinventionthanthatparticularkindofdelicacywhichspringsfromtaste；wetherefindsomethingwhichapproachesnearertotheboldstrengthofaMich？lAngelothantothesoftergracesofaRaph？l。
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1。Theycutoutthetonguesoftheadvocates，andcried，\"Viper，don’thiss。\"——Tacitus。
2。Agathias，iv。
3。Justin，xxxviii。
4。Calumniaslitium——Ibid。
5。Tacitus。
6。Hehasdescribedthisinterview，whichhappenedin1596，intheCollectionofVoyagesthatContributedtotheEstablishmentoftheEastIndiaCompany，iii，partI，p。33。
7。Bookliv。17，p。532。
8。FableoftheBees。
9。ThepeoplewhofollowthekhanofMalacamber，thoseofCarnatacaandCoromandel，areproudandindolent；theyconsumelittle，becausetheyaremiserablypoor；whilethesubjectsoftheMogulandthepeopleofHindostanemploythemselves，andenjoytheconveniencesoflife，liketheEuropeans。——CollectionofVoyagesthatContributedtotheEstablishmentoftheEastIndiaCompany，i，p。54。
10。SeeDampier，iii。
11。EdifyingLetters，coll。xil，p。80。
12。Bookxliii。2。
13。Bythenatureofthesoilandclimate。
14。FatherDuHalde，ii。
15。FatherDuHalde。
16。Mosesmadethesamecodeforlawsandreligion。TheoldRomansconfoundedtheancientcustomswiththelaws。
17。SeeFatherDuHalde。
18。SeetheclassicbooksfromwhichFatherDuHaldegivesussomeexcellentextracts。
19。Itisthiswhichhasestablishedemulation，whichhasbanishedlaziness，andcultivatedaloveoflearning。
20。SeethereasonsgivenbytheChinesemagistratesintheirdecreesforproscribingtheChristianreligion。EdifyingLetters，coll。xvii。
21。Seeiv。3，xix。13。
22。Seexxiv。3。
23。Lange，Journalin1721and1722；inVoyagestotheNorth，viii，p。
363。
24。Plutarch，Solon。
25。Laws，xii。
26。Ibid。，xii。
27。Insimplum。
28。Livy，xxxviii。
29。Institutes，ii。tit。6，§2。Ozel’scompilation，Leyden，1658。
30。Ibid。，ii。，DePupil。substit。§3。
31。Theformofthevulgarsubstitutionranthus：\"Ifsuchaoneisunwillingtotaketheinheritance，Isubstituteinhisstead，\"&c。；thepupillarysubstitution：\"Ifsuchaonediesbeforehearrivesattheageofpuberty，Isubstitute，\"&c。
32。Bookiii，tit。5，§5。
33。Leg。8，Cod。，DeRepud。
34。AndthelawoftheTwelveTables。SeeCicero，Philipp。，ii。69。
35。Siverberibusquaingenuisalienasunt，afficientemprobaverit。
36。InNov。117，cap。xiv。
37。Chapter6。
BookXX。OfLawsinRelationtoCommerce，ConsideredinitsNatureandDistinctions1。OfCommerce。Thefollowingsubjectsdeservetobetreatedinamoreextensivemannerthanthenatureofthisworkwillpermit。FainwouldI
glidedownagentleriver，butIamcarriedawaybyatorrent。
Commerceisacureforthemostdestructiveprejudices；foritisalmostageneralrulethatwhereverwefindagreeablemanners，therecommerceflourishes；andthatwhereverthereiscommerce，therewemeetwithagreeablemanners。
Letusnotbeastonished，then，ifourmannersarenowlesssavagethanformerly。Commercehaseverywherediffusedaknowledgeofthemannersofallnations：thesearecomparedonewithanother，andfromthiscomparisonarisethegreatestadvantages。
Commerciallaws，itmaybesaid，improvemannerstorthesamereasonthattheydestroythem。Theycorruptthepurestmorals。[1]ThiswasthesubjectofPlato’scomplaints；andweeverydayseethattheypolishandrefinethemostbarbarous。
2。OftheSpiritofCommerce。Peaceisthenaturaleffectoftrade。Twonationswhotrafficwitheachotherbecomereciprocallydependent；forifonehasaninterestinbuying，theotherhasaninterestinselling：
andthustheirunionisfoundedontheirmutualnecessities。
Butifthespiritofcommerceunitesnations，itdoesnotinthesamemanneruniteindividuals。Weseethatincountries[2]wherethepeoplemoveonlybythespiritofcommerce，theymakeatrafficofallthehumane，allthemoralvirtues；themosttriflingthings，thosewhichhumanitywoulddemand，aretheredone，ortheregiven，onlyformoney。
Thespiritoftradeproducesinthemindofamanacertainsenseofexactjustice，opposite，ontheonehand，torobbery，andontheothertothosemoralvirtueswhichforbidouralwaysadheringrigidlytotherulesofprivateinterest，andsufferustoneglectthisfortheadvantageofothers。
Thetotalprivationoftrade，onthecontrary，producesrobbery，whichAristotleranksinthenumberofmeansofacquiring；yetitisnotatallinconsistentwithcertainmoralvirtues。Hospitality，forinstance，ismostrareintradingcountries，whileitisfoundinthemostadmirableperfectionamongnationsofvagabonds。
Itisasacrilege，saysTacitus，foraGermantoshuthisdooragainstanymanwhomsoever，whetherknownorunknown。Hewhohasbehavedwithhospitalitytoastrangergoestoshowhimanotherhousewherethishospitalityisalsopractised；andheistherereceivedwiththesamehumanity。[3]ButwhentheGermanshadfoundedkingdoms，hospitalityhadbecomeburdensome。ThisappearsbytwolawsofthecodeoftheBurgundians；[4]oneofwhichinflictedapenaltyoneverybarbarianwhopresumedtoshowastrangerthehouseofaRoman；andtheotherdecreedthatwhoeverreceivedastrangershouldbeindemnifiedbytheinhabitants，everyonebeingobligedtopayhisproperproportion。
3。OfthePovertyofthePeople。Therearetwosortsofpoor；thosewhoarerenderedsuchbytheseverityofgovernment：theseare，indeed，incapableofperformingalmostanygreataction，becausetheirindigenceisaconsequenceoftheirslavery。Othersarepoor，onlybecausetheyeitherdespiseorknownottheconveniencesoflife；andthesearecapableofaccomplishinggreatthings，becausetheirpovertyconstitutesapartoftheirliberty。
4。OfCommerceindifferentGovernments。Tradehassomerelationtoformsofgovernment。Inamonarchy，itisgenerallyfoundedonluxury；
andthoughitbealsofoundedonrealwants，yettheprincipalviewwithwhichitiscarriedonistoprocureeverythingthatcancontributetothepride，thepleasure，andthecapriciouswhimsofthenation。Inrepublics，itiscommonlyfoundedoneconomy。Theirmerchants，havinganeyetoallthenationsoftheearth，bringfromonewhatiswantedbyanother。ItisthusthattherepublicsofTyre，Carthage，Athens，Marseilles，Florence，Venice，andHollandengagedincommerce。
Thiskindoftraffichasanaturalrelationtoarepublicangovernment：
tomonarchiesitisonlyoccasional。Forasitisfoundedonthepracticeofgaininglittle，andevenlessthanothernations，andofremedyingthisbygainingincessantly，itcanhardlybecarriedonbyapeopleswallowedupinluxury，whospendmuch，andseenothingbutobjectsofgrandeur。
Cicerowasofthisopinion，whenhesojustlysaid，\"Idonotlikethatthesamepeopleshouldbeatonceboththelordsandfactorsofthewholeearth。\"[5]Forthiswould，indeed，betosupposethateveryindividualinthestate，andthewholestatecollectively，hadtheirheadsconstantlyfilledwithgrandviews，andatthesametimewithsmallones；whichisacontradiction。
Notbutthatthemostnobleenterprisesarecompletedalsointhosestateswhichsubsistbyeconomicalcommerce：theyhaveevenanintrepiditynottobefoundinmonarchies。Andthereasonisthis：
Onebranchofcommerceleadstoanother，thesmalltothemoderate，themoderatetothegreat；thushewhohasgratifiedhisdesireofgainingalittleraiseshimselftoasituationinwhichheisnotlessdesirousofgainingagreatdeal。
Besides，thegrandenterprisesofmerchantsarealwaysnecessarilyconnectedwiththeaffairsofthepublic。But，inmonarchies，thesepublicaffairsgiveasmuchdistrusttothemerchantsasinfreestatestheyappeartogivesafety。Greatenterprises，therefore，incommercearenotformonarchical，butforrepublican，governments。
Inshort，anopinionofgreatercertainty，astothepossessionofpropertyinthesestates，makesthemundertakeeverything。Theyflatterthemselveswiththehopesofreceivinggreatadvantagesfromthesmilesoffortune；andthinkingthemselvessureofwhattheyhavealreadyacquired，theyboldlyexposeitinordertoacquiremore；riskingnothing，butasthemeansofobtaining。
Idonotpretendtosaythatanymonarchyisentirelyexcludedfromaneconomicalcommerce；butofitsownnatureithaslesstendencytowardsit：neitherdoImeanthattherepublicswithwhichweareacquaintedareabsolutelydeprivedofthecommerceofluxury；butitislessconnectedwiththeirconstitution。
Withregardtoadespoticstate，thereisnooccasiontomentionit。A
generalrule：Anationinslaverylaboursmoretopreservethantoacquire；afreenation，moretoacquirethantopreserve。
5。OfNationsthathaveenteredintoaneconomicalCommerce。Marseilles，anecessaryretreatinthemidstofatempestuoussea；Marseilles，aharbourwhichallthewinds，theshelvesofthesea，thedispositionofthecoasts，pointoutforalanding—place，becamefrequentedbymariners；whilethesterilityoftheadjacentcountrydeterminedthecitizenstoaneconomicalcommerce。[6]Itwasnecessarythattheyshouldbelaborioustosupplywhatnaturehadrefused；thattheyshouldbejust，inordertoliveamongbarbarousnations，fromwhomtheyweretoderivetheirprosperity；thattheyshouldbemoderate，totheendthattheymightalwaystastethesweetsofatranquilgovernment；infine，thattheyshouldbefrugalintheirmanners，toenablethemtosubsistbytrade——atradethemorecertainasitwaslessadvantageous。
Weeverywhereseeviolenceandoppressiongivebirthtoacommercefoundedoneconomy，whilemenareconstrainedtotakerefugeinmarshes，inisles，intheshallowsofthesea，andevenonrocksthemselves。ThusitwasthatTyre，Venice，andthecitiesofHollandwerefounded。
