Inthisking’slastillness，thephysicianswouldnotventuretosayhewasindanger；andsurelytheyactedveryright。[31]
11。OfThoughts。MarsyasdreamedthathehadcutDionysius’sthroat。[32]
Dionysiusputhimtodeath，pretendingthathewouldneverhavedreamedofsuchathingbynightifhehadnotthoughtofitbyday。Thiswasamosttyrannicalaction：forthoughithadbeenthesubjectofhisthoughts，yethehadmadenoattempt[33]towardsit。Thelawsdonottakeuponthemtopunishanyotherthanovertacts。
12。OfindiscreetSpeeches。Nothingrendersthecrimeofhightreasonmorearbitrarythandeclaringpeopleguiltyofitforindiscreetspeeches。Speechissosubjecttointerpretation；thereissogreatadifferencebetweenindiscretionandmalice；andfrequentlysolittleisthereofthelatterinthefreedomofexpression，thatthelawcanhardlysubjectpeopletoacapitalpunishmentforwordsunlessitexpresslydeclareswhatwordstheyare。[34]
Wordsdonotconstituteanovertact；theyremainonlyinidea。Whenconsideredbythemselves，theyhavegenerallynodeterminatesignification；forthisdependsonthetoneinwhichtheyareuttered。
Itoftenhappensthatinrepeatingthesamewordstheyhavenotthesamemeaning；thisdependsontheirconnectionwithotherthings，andsometimesmoreissignifiedbysilencethanbyanyexpressionwhatever。
Sincetherecanbenothingsoequivocalandambiguousasallthis，howisitpossibletoconvertitintoacrimeofhightreason？Whereverthislawisestablished，thereisanendnotonlyofliberty，butevenofitsveryshadow。
InthemanifestoofthelateCzarinaagainstthefamilyoftheD’Olgoruckys，[35]oneoftheseprincesiscondemnedtodeathforhavingutteredsomeindecentwordsconcerningherperson：another，forhavingmaliciouslyinterpretedherimperiallaws，andforhavingoffendedhersacredpersonbydisrespectfulexpressions。
NotthatIpretendtodiminishthejustindignationofthepublicagainstthosewhopresumetostainthegloryoftheirsovereign；whatI
meanisthat，ifdespoticprincesarewillingtomoderatetheirpower，amilderchastisementwouldbemoreproperonthoseoccasionsthanthechargeofhightreason——athingalwaysterribleeventoinnocenceitself。[36]
Overtactsdonothappeneveryday；theyareexposedtotheeyeofthepublic；andafalsechargewithregardtomattersoffactmaybeeasilydetected。Wordscarriedintoactionassumethenatureofthataction。
Thusamanwhogoesintoapublicmarket—placetoincitethesubjecttorevoltincurstheguiltofhightreason，becausethewordsarejoinedtotheaction，andpartakeofitsnature。Itisnotthewordsthatarepunished，butanactioninwhichwordsareemployed。Theydonotbecomecriminal，butwhentheyareannexedtoacriminalaction：everythingisconfoundedifwordsareconstruedintoacapitalcrime，insteadofconsideringthemonlyasamarkofthatcrime。
TheEmperorsTheodosius，Arcadius，andHonoriuswrotethustoRufinus，whowaspr？fectuspr？torio：\"Thoughamanshouldhappentospeakamissofourpersonorgovernment，wedonotintendtopunishhim：[37]ifhehasspokenthroughlevity，wemustdespisehim；ifthroughfolly，wemustpityhim；andifhewrongsus，wemustforgivehim。Therefore，leavingthingsastheyare，youaretoinformusaccordingly，thatwemaybeabletojudgeofwordsbypersons，andthatwemaydulyconsiderwhetherweoughttopunishoroverlookthem。\"
13。OfWritings。Inwritingsthereissomethingmorepermanentthaninwords，butwhentheyareinnowaypreparativetohightreasontheycannotamounttothatcharge。
AndyetAugustusandTiberiussubjectedsatiricalwriterstothesamepunishmentasforhavingviolatedthelawofmaiestas。Augustus，[38]
becauseofsomelibelsthathadbeenwrittenagainstpersonsofthefirstquality；Tiberius，becauseofthosewhichhesuspectedtohavebeenwrittenagainsthimself。NothingwasmorefataltoRomanliberty。
CremutiusCorduswasaccusedofhavingcalledCassiusinhisannalsthelastoftheRomans。[39]
Satiricalwritingsarehardlyknownindespoticgovernments，wheredejectionofmindontheonehand，andignoranceontheother，affordneitherabilitiesnorwilltowrite。Indemocraciestheyarenothindered，fortheverysamereasonwhichcausesthemtobeprohibitedinmonarchies；beinggenerallylevelledagainstmenofpowerandauthority，theyflatterthemalignancyofthepeople，whoarethegoverningparty。
Inmonarchiestheyareforbidden，butratherasasubjectofcivilanimadversionthanasacapitalcrime。Theymayamusethegeneralmalevolence，pleasethemalcontents，diminishtheenvyagainstpublicemployments，givethepeoplepatiencetosuffer，andmakethemlaughattheirsufferings。
Butnogovernmentissoaversetosatiricalwritingsasthearistocratic。Therethemagistratesarepettysovereigns，butnotgreatenoughtodespiseaffronts。Ifinamonarchyasatiricalstrokeisdesignedagainsttheprince，heisplacedonsuchaneminencethatitdoesnotreachhim；butanaristocraticlordispiercedtotheveryheart。Hencethedecemvirs，whoformedanaristocracy，punishedsatiricalwritingswithdeath。[40]
14。BreachofModestyinpunishingCrimes。Therearerulesofmodestyobservedbyalmosteverynationintheworld；nowitwouldbeveryabsurdtoinfringetheserulesinthepunishmentofcrimes，theprincipalviewofwhichoughtalwaystobetheestablishmentoforder。
WasittheintentofthoseOrientalnationswhoexposedwomentoelephantstrainedupforanabominablekindofpunishment——wasit，I
say，theirintenttoestablishonelawbythebreachofanother？
ByanancientcustomoftheRomansitwasnotpermittedtoputgirlstodeathtilltheywereripeformarriage。Tiberiusfoundanexpedientofhavingthemdebauchedbytheexecutionerbeforetheywerebroughttotheplaceofpunishment：[41]thatbloodyandsubtletyrantdestroyedthemoralsofthepeopletopreservetheircustoms。
WhenthemagistratesofJapancausedwomentobeexposednakedinthemarket—places，andobligedthemtogouponallfourslikebeasts，modestywasshocked：[42]butwhentheywantedtocompelamother——whentheywantedtoforceason——Icannotproceed；evenNatureherselfisstruckwithhorror。[43]
15。OftheEnfranchisementofSlavesinordertoaccusetheirMaster。
Augustusmadealawthattheslavesofthosewhoconspiredagainsthispersonshouldbesoldtothepublic，thattheymightdeposeagainsttheirmaster。[44]Nothingoughttobeneglectedwhichmaycontributetothediscoveryofaheinouscrime；itisnatural，therefore，thatinagovernmentwherethereareslavestheyshouldbeallowedtoinform；buttheyoughtnottobeadmittedaswitnesses。
VindexdiscoveredtheconspiracythathadbeenformedinfavourofTarquin；buthewasnotadmittedawitnessagainstthechildrenofBrutus。Itwasrighttogivelibertytoapersonwhohadrenderedsogreataservicetohiscountry；butitwasnotgivenhimwithaviewofenablinghimtorenderthisservice。
HencetheEmperorTacitusordainedthatslavesshouldnotbeadmittedaswitnessesagainsttheirmasters，eveninthecaseofhightreason：[45]alawwhichwasnotinsertedinJustinian’scompilation。
16。OfCalumnywithregardtotheCrimeofHighTreason。TodojusticetotheC？sars，theywerenotthefirstdevisersofthehorridlawswhichtheyenacted。ItwasSulla[46]thattaughtthemthatcalumniatorsoughtnottobepunished；buttheabusewassooncarriedtosuchexcessastorewardthem。[47]
17。OftherevealingofConspiracies。\"Ifthybrother，thesonofthymother，orthyson，orthydaughter，orthewifeofthybosom，orthyfriend，whichisasthineownsoul，enticetheesecretly，saying，’Letusgoandserveothergods，’thoushaltsurelykillhim，thoushaltstonehim。\"[48]ThislawofDeuteronomycannotbeacivillawamongmostofthenationsknowntous，becauseitwouldpavethewayforallmannerofwickedness。
Nolesssevereisthelawofseveralcountrieswhichcommandsthesubjects，onpainofdeath，todiscloseconspiraciesinwhichtheyarenotevensomuchasconcerned。Whensuchalawisestablishedinamonarchicalgovernment，itisveryproperitshouldbeundersomerestrictions。
Itoughtnottobeappliedinitsfullseveritysavetothestrongestcasesofhightreason。Inthosecountriesitisoftheutmostimportancenottoconfoundthedifferentdegreesofthiscrime。InJapan，wherethelawssubverteveryideaofhumanreason，thecrimeofconcealmentisappliedeventothemostordinarycases。
Acertainrelation[49]makesmentionoftwoyoungladieswhowereshutupforlifeinaboxthicksetwithpointednails，oneforhavinghadaloveintrigue，andtheotherfornotdisclosingit。
18。HowdangerousitisinRepublicstobetoosevereinpunishingtheCrimeofHighTreason。Assoonasarepublichascompassedthedestructionofthosewhowantedtosubvertit，thereshouldbeanendofterrors，punishments，andevenofrewards。
Greatpunishments，andconsequentlygreatchanges，cannottakeplacewithoutinvestingsomecitizenswithanexorbitantpower。Itis，therefore，moreadvisableinthiscasetoexceedinlenitythaninseverity；tobanishbutfew，ratherthanmany；andtoleavethemtheirestates，insteadofmakingavastnumberofconfiscations。Underpretenceofavengingtherepublic’scause，theavengerswouldestablishtyranny。Thebusinessisnottodestroytherebel，buttherebellion。
Theyoughttoreturnasquicklyaspossibleintotheusualtrackofgovernment，inwhicheveryoneisprotectedbythelaws，andnooneinjured。
TheGreekssetnoboundstothevengeancetheytookupontyrants，orofthosetheysuspectedoftyranny；theyputtheirchildrentodeath，[50]
nay，sometimesfiveoftheirnearestrelatives；[51]andtheyproscribedaninfinitenumberoffamilies。Bysuchmeanstheirrepublicssufferedthemostviolentshocks：exiles，orthereturnoftheexiled，werealwaysepochsthatindicatedachangeoftheconstitution。
TheRomanshadmoresense。WhenCassiuswasputtodeathforhavingaimedattyranny，thequestionwasproposedwhetherhischildrenshouldundergothesamefate：buttheywerepreserved。\"They，\"saysDionysiusHalicarnassus，[52]\"whowantedtochangethislawattheendoftheMarsianandcivilwars，andtoexcludefrompublicofficesthechildrenofthosewhohadbeenproscribedbySulla，areverymuchtoblame。\"
WefindinthewarsofMariusandSullatowhatexcesstheRomanshadgraduallycarriedtheirbarbarity。Suchscenesofcrueltyitwashopedwouldneverberevived。Butunderthetriumvirstheycommittedgreateractsofoppression，thoughwithsomeappearanceoflenity；anditisprovokingtoseewhatsophismstheymadeuseoftocovertheirinhumanity。Appianhasgivenus[53]theformulaoftheproscriptions。
Onewouldimaginetheyhadnootheraimthanthegoodoftherepublic，withsuchcalmnessdotheyexpressthemselves；suchadvantagesdotheypointouttothestate；suchexpediencydotheyshowinthemeanstheyadopt；suchsecuritydotheypromisetotheopulent；suchtranquillitytothepoor；soapprehensivedotheyseemofendangeringthelivesofthecitizens；sodesirousofappeasingthesoldiers；suchfelicity，infine，dotheypresagetothecommonwealth。
RomewasdrenchedinbloodwhenLepidustriumphedoverSpain：yet，byanunparalleledabsurdity，heorderedpublicrejoicingsinthatcity，uponpainofproscription。
19。InwhatMannertheUseofLibertyissuspendedinaRepublic。Incountrieswherelibertyismostesteemed，therearelawsbywhichasinglepersonisdeprivedofit，inordertopreserveitforthewholecommunity。SuchareinEnglandwhattheycallBillsofAttainder。[54]
TheseareinrelationtothoseAthenianlawsbywhichaprivatepersonwascondemned，[55]providedtheyweremadebytheunanimoussuffrageofsixthousandcitizens。TheyareinrelationalsotothoselawswhichweremadeatRomeagainstprivatecitizens，andwerecalledprivileges。[56]Thesewereneverpassedexceptinthegreatmeetingsofthepeople。Butinwhatmannersoevertheywereenacted，Cicerowasforhavingthemabolished，becausetheforceofalawconsistsinitsbeingmadeforthewholecommunity。[57]Imustown，notwithstanding，thatthepracticeofthefreestnationthateverexistedinducesmetothinkthattherearecasesinwhichaveilshouldbedrawnforawhileoverliberty，asitwascustomarytocoverthestatuesofthegods。
20。OfLawsfavourabletotheLibertyoftheSubjectinaRepublic。Inpopulargovernmentsitoftenhappensthataccusationsarecarriedoninpublic，andeverymanisallowedtoaccusewhomsoeverhepleases。Thisrendereditnecessarytoestablishproperlaws，inordertoprotecttheinnocenceofthesubject。AtAthens，ifanaccuserhadnotthefifthpartofthevotesonhisside，hewasobligedtopayafineofathousanddrachms。？schines，whoaccusedCtesiphon，wascondemnedtopaythisfine。[58]AtRome，afalseaccuserwasbrandedwithinfamy[59]bymarkingtheletterKonhisforehead。Guardswerealsoappointedtowatchtheaccuser，inordertopreventhiscorruptingeitherthejudgesorthewitnesses。[60]
IhavealreadytakennoticeofthatAthenianandRomanlawbywhichthepartyaccusedwasallowedtowithdrawbeforejudgmentwaspronounced。
21。OftheCrueltyofLawsinrespecttoDebtorsinaRepublic。Greatisthesuperioritywhichonefellow—subjecthasalreadyoveranother，bylendinghimmoney，whichthelatterborrowsinordertospend，and，ofcourse，hasnolongerinhispossession。Whatmustbetheconsequenceifthelawsofarepublicmakeafurtheradditiontothisservitudeandsubjection？
AtAthensandRome[61]itwasatfirstpermittedtosellsuchdebtorsaswereinsolvent。SolonredressedthisabuseatAthens[62]byordainingthatnoman’sbodyshouldanswerforhiscivildebts。Butthedecemvirs[63]didnotreformthesamecustomatRome；andthoughtheyhadSolon’sregulationbeforetheireyes，yettheydidnotchoosetofollowit。ThisisnottheonlypassageofthelawoftheTwelveTablesinwhichthedecemvirsshowtheirdesignofcheckingthespiritofdemocracy。
OftendidthosecruellawsagainstdebtorsthrowtheRomanrepublicintodanger。Amancoveredwithwoundsmadehisescapefromhiscreditor’shouseandappearedintheforum。[64]Thepeopleweremovedwiththisspectacle，andothercitizenswhomtheircreditorsdurstnolongerconfinebrokeloosefromtheirdungeons。Theyhadpromisesmadethem，whichwereallbroken。Thepeopleuponthis，havingwithdrawntotheSacredMount，obtained，notanabrogationofthoselaws，butamagistratetodefendthem。Thustheyquittedastateofanarchy，butweresoonindangeroffallingintotyranny。Manlius，torenderhimselfpopular，wasgoingtosetthosecitizensatlibertywhobytheirinhumancreditors[65]hadbeenreducedtoslavery。Manlius’sdesignswereprevented，butwithoutremedyingtheevil。Particularlawsfacilitatedtodebtorsthemeansofpaying；[66]andintheyearofRome428theconsulsproposedalaw[67]whichdeprivedcreditorsofthepowerofconfiningtheirdebtorsintheirownhouses。[68]Ausurer，bynamePapirius，attemptedtocorruptthechastityofayoungmannamedPublius，whomhekeptinirons。Sextus’scrimegavetoRomeitspoliticalliberty；thatofPapiriusgaveitalsothecivil。
Suchwasthefateofthiscity，thatnewcrimesconfirmedthelibertywhichthoseofamoreancientdatehadprocuredit。Appius’sattemptuponVirginiaflungthepeopleagainintothathorroragainsttyrantswithwhichthemisfortuneofLucretiahadfirstinspiredthem。
Thirty—sevenyearsafter[69]thecrimeoftheinfamousPapirius，anactionofthelikecriminalnature[70]wasthecauseofthepeople’sretiringtotheJaniculum，[71]andofgivingnewvigourtothelawmadeforthesafetyofdebtors。
Sincethattimecreditorswereoftenerprosecutedbydebtorsforhavingviolatedthelawsagainstusurythanthelatterweresuedforrefusingtopaythem。
22。OfThingsthatstrikeatLibertyinMonarchies。Libertyoftenhasbeenweakenedinmonarchiesbyathingoftheleastuseintheworldtotheprince：thisisthenamingofcommissionerstotryaprivateperson。
Theprincehimselfderivessoverylittleadvantagefromthosecommissionersthatitisnotworthwhiletochangefortheirsakethecommoncourseofthings。Heismorallysurethathehasmoreofthespiritofprobityandjusticethanhiscommissioners，whothinkthemselvessufficientlyjustifiedbyhisnominationandorders，byavagueinterestofstate，andevenbytheirveryapprehensions。
UponthearraigningofapeerunderHenryVIIIitwascustomarytotryhimbyacommitteeoftheHouseofLords：bywhichmeansheputtodeathasmanypeersashepleased。
23。OfSpiesinMonarchies。ShouldIbeaskedwhetherthereisanynecessityforspiesinmonarchies，myanswerwouldbethattheusualpracticeofgoodprincesisnottoemploythem。Whenamanobeysthelaws，hehasdischargedhisdutytohisprince。Heoughtatleasttohavehisownhouseforanasylum，andtherestofhisconductshouldbeexemptfrominquiry。Thetradeofaspymightperhapsbetolerable，wereitpractisedbyhonestmen；butthenecessaryinfamyofthepersonissufficienttomakeusjudgeoftheinfamyofthething。Aprinceoughttoacttowardshissubjectswithcandour，frankness，andconfidence。
Hethathassomuchdisquiet，suspicion，andfearisanactorembarrassedinplayinghispart。Whenhefindsthatthelawsaregenerallyobservedandrespected，hemayjudgehimselfsafe。Thebehaviourofthepublicanswersforthatofeveryindividual。Lethimnotbeafraid：hecannotimaginehownaturalitisforhispeopletolovehim。Andhowshouldtheydootherwisethanlovehim，sinceheisthesourceofalmostallbountiesandfavours；punishmentsbeinggenerallychargedtotheaccountofthelaws？Henevershowshimselftohispeoplebutwithaserenecountenance；theyhaveevenashareofhisglory，andtheyareprotectedbyhispower。Aproofofhisbeingbelovedisthathissubjectshaveconfidenceinhim：whattheministerrefuses，theyimaginetheprincewouldhavegranted。Evenunderpubliccalamitiestheydonotaccusehisperson；theyareapttocomplainofhisbeingmisinformed，orbesetbycorruptmen。\"Didtheprincebutknow，\"saythepeople；thesewordsareakindofinvocation，andaproofoftheconfidencetheyhaveinhisperson。
24。OfAnonymousLetters。TheTartarsareobligedtoputtheirnamestotheirarrows，thatthearmmaybeknownwhichshootsthem。WhenPhilipofMacedonwaswoundedatthesiegeofacertaintown，thesewordswerefoundonthejavelin，\"AsterhasgiventhismortalwoundtoPhilip。\"[72]
Iftheywhoaccuseapersondiditmerelytoservethepublic，theywouldnotcarrytheircomplainttotheprince，whomaybeeasilyprejudiced，buttothemagistrates，whohaverulesthatareformidableonlytocalumniators。Butiftheyareunwillingtoleavethelawsopenbetweenthemandtheaccused，itisapresumptiontheyhavereasontobeafraidofthem；andtheleastpunishmenttheyoughttosufferisnottobecredited。Nonotice，therefore，shouldeverbetakenofthoseletters，exceptincasesthatadmitnotofthedelaysoftheordinarycourseofjustice，andinwhichtheprince’swelfareisconcerned。Thenitmaybeimaginedthattheaccuserhasmadeaneffort，whichhasuntiedhistongue。Butinothercasesoneoughttosay，withtheEmperorConstantius：\"Wecannotsuspectapersonwhohaswantedanaccuser，whilsthedidnotwantanenemy。\"[73]
25。OftheMannerofgoverninginMonarchies。Theroyalauthorityisaspringthatoughttomovewiththegreatestfreedomandease。TheChineseboastofoneoftheiremperorswhogoverned，theysay，liketheheavens，thatis，byhisexample。
Therearesomecasesinwhichasovereignoughttoexertthefullextentofhispower；andothersinwhichheshouldreduceitwithinnarrowerlimits。Thesublimityofadministrationconsistsinknowingtheproperdegreeofpowerwhichshouldbeexertedondifferentoccasions。
Thewholefelicityofmonarchiesconsistsintheopinionwhichthesubjectsentertainofthelenityofthegovernment。Aweakministeriseverreadytoremindusofourslavery。Butgranting，even，thatweareslaves，heshouldendeavourtoconcealourmiseryfromus。Allhecansayorwriteisthattheprinceisuneasy，thatheissurprised，andthathewillredressallgrievances。Thereisacertaineaseincommanding；theprinceoughtonlytoencourage，andletthelawsmenace。[74]
26。ThatinaMonarchythePrinceoughttobeofeasyAccess。Theutilityofthismaximwillappearfromtheinconvenienceattendingthecontrarypractice。\"TheCzarPeterI，\"saystheSieurPerry，[75]\"haspublishedanewedict，bywhichheforbidsanyofhissubjectstoofferhimapetitiontillafterhavingpresentedittotwoofhisofficers。Incaseofrefusalofjusticetheymaypresenthimathird，butuponpainofdeathiftheyareinthewrong。AfterthisnooneeverpresumedtoofferapetitiontotheCzar。\"
27。OftheMannersofaMonarch。Themannersofaprincecontributeasmuchasthelawsthemselvestoliberty；likethesehemaytransformmenintobrutes，andbrutesintomen。Ifheprefersfreeandgenerousspirits，hewillhavesubjects；ifhelikesbase，dastardlysouls，hewillhaveslaves。Wouldheknowthegreatartofruling，lethimcallhonourandvirtuetoattendhisperson；andlethimencouragepersonalmerit。Hemayevensometimescastaneyeontalentsandabilities。Lethimnotbeafraidofthoserivalswhoarecalledmenofmerit；heistheirequalwhenoncehelovesthem。Lethimgaintheheartsofhispeople，withoutsubduingtheirspirits。Lethimrenderhimselfpopular；
heoughttobepleasedwiththeaffectionsofthelowestofhissubjects，fortheytooaremen。Thecommonpeoplerequiresoverylittlecondescension，thatitisfittheyshouldbehumoured；theinfinitedistancebetweenthesovereignandthemwillsurelypreventthemfromgivinghimanyuneasiness。Lethimbeexorabletosupplication，andresoluteagainstdemands；lethimbesensible，infine，thathispeoplehavehisrefusals，whilehiscourtiersenjoyhisfavours。
28。OftheRegardwhichMonarchsowetotheirSubjects。Princesoughttobeextremelycircumspectwithregardtoraillery。Itpleaseswithmoderation，becauseitisanintroductiontofamiliarity；butasatiricalrailleryislessexcusableinthemthaninthemeanestoftheirsubjects，foritistheyalonethatgiveamortalwound。
