55。\"Ourancestors，\"saysCicero，ProCluentio，\"wouldnotsufferanymanwhomthepartieshadnotagreedto，tobejudgeoftheleastpecuniaryaffair，muchlessofacitizen’sreputation。\"
56。SeeinthefragmentsoftheServilian，Cornelian，andotherlaws，inwhatmannertheselawsappointedjudgesforthecrimestheyproposedtopunish。Theywereoftenpitcheduponbychoice，sometimesbylot，or，infine，bylotmixedtogetherwithchoice。
57。Seneca，DeBenefic。iii。7，infine。
58。SeeQuintilian，iv，p。54，infol。ed。，Paris，1541。
59。Leg。2ff。deorig。jur。Magistrateswhowerecalleddecemvirspresidedincourt，thewholeunderapr？tor’sdirection。
60。QuoniamdecapitecivisRomani，injussupopuliRomani，noneratpermissumconsulibusjusdicere。——SeePomponius，Leg。2，§6，ff。deorig。jur。
61。DionysiusHalicarnassus，v，p。322。
62。Thecomitiabycenturies。ThusManliusCapitolinuswastriedinthesecomitia。——Livy，Dec。1，vi。20。
63。Pomponius，inLeg。2，Dig。，deorig。jur。
64。SeeafragmentofUlpian，whogivesanotheroftheCornelianLaw：itistobemetwithintheCollationoftheMosaicandRomanLaws，tit。i，DeSicariisethomicidiis。
65。Thistookplace，especiallyinregardtocrimescommittedinItaly，whichweresubjectchieflytotheinspectionofthesenate。SeeLivy，Dec。1，ix，26，concerningtheconspiraciesatCapua。
66。ThiswasthecaseintheprosecutionforthemurderofPosthumius，intheyear340ofRome。SeeLivy，iv。50。
67。ThisjudgmentwaspassedintheyearofRome567。
68。Bookviii。
69。Cicero，inBrutus。
70。ThisisprovedfromLivy，bookxliii。46，whosaysthatHannibalrenderedtheirmagistracyannual。
71。Thesenatus—consultumswereinforceforthespaceofayear，thoughnotconfirmedbythepeople。——DionysiusHalicarnassusix，p。595；xi，p。735。
72。Intheyear630。
73。Capitecensosplerosque。——Sallust，DeBelloJugurth，84。
74。Fragmentofthisauthor，xxxvi，inthecollectionofConstantinePorphyrogenitus，OfVirtuesandVices[Historica]。
75。Fragmentofhishistory，takenfromtheextractOfVirtuesandVices[Historica]。
76。FragmentofthebookxxxivintheextractOfVirtuesandVices[Historica]。
77。PenesquosRom？tumjudiciaerant，atqueexequestriordinesolerentsortitojudiceseligiincausaPr？torumetProconsulum，quibuspostadministratamprovinciamdiesdictaerat。
78。Theymadetheiredictsuponenteringtheprovinces。
79。Bookv。19。Seealsoii，iii，iv，andv。
80。AftertheconquestofMacedoniatheRomanspaidnotaxes。
81。SpeechtakenfromTrogusPompeius，andrelatedbyJustin，xxxviii。
4。
82。SeetheorationsagainstVerres。
83。ItiswellknownwhatsortofatribunalwasthatofVarus，whichprovokedtheGermanstorevolt。
BookXII。OftheLawsThatFormPoliticalLiberty，inRelationtotheSubject1。IdeaofthisBook。Itisnotsufficienttohavetreatedofpoliticallibertyinrelationtotheconstitution；wemustexamineitlikewiseintherelationitbearstothesubject。
Wehaveobservedthatintheformercaseitarisesfromacertaindistributionofthethreepowers；butinthelatter，wemustconsideritinanotherlight。Itconsistsinsecurity，orintheopinionpeoplehaveoftheirsecurity。
Theconstitutionmayhappentobefree，andthesubjectnot。Thesubjectmaybefree，andnottheconstitution。Inthosecases，theconstitutionwillbefreebyright，andnotinfact；thesubjectwillbefreeinfact，andnotbyright。
Itisthedispositiononlyofthelaws，andevenofthefundamentallaws，thatconstituteslibertyinrelationtotheconstitution。Butasitregardsthesubject：manners，customs，orreceivedexamplesmaygiverisetoit，andparticularcivillawsmayencourageit，asweshallpresentlyobserve。
Further，asinmoststateslibertyismorecheckedordepressedthantheirconstitutionrequires，itispropertotreatoftheparticularlawsthatineachconstitutionareapttoassistorchecktheprincipleoflibertywhicheachstateiscapableofreceiving。
2。OftheLibertyoftheSubject。Philosophiclibertyconsistsinthefreeexerciseofthewill；oratleast，ifwemustspeakagreeablytoallsystems，inanopinionthatwehavethefreeexerciseofourwill。
Politicallibertyconsistsinsecurity，or，atleast，intheopinionthatweenjoysecurity。
Thissecurityisnevermoredangerouslyattackedthaninpublicorprivateaccusations。Itis，therefore，onthegoodnessofcriminallawsthatthelibertyofthesubjectprincipallydepends。
Criminallawsdidnotreceivetheirfullperfectionallatonce。Eveninplaceswherelibertyhasbeenmostsoughtafter，ithasnotbeenalwaysfound。Aristotle[1]informsusthatatCum？theparentsoftheaccusermightbewitnesses。SoimperfectwasthelawunderthekingsofRomethatServiusTulliuspronouncedsentenceagainstthechildrenofAncusMartius，whowerechargedwithhavingassassinatedtheking，hisfather—in—law。[2]UnderthefirstkingsofFrance，Clotariusmadealaw[3]thatnobodyshouldbecondemnedwithoutbeingheard；whichshowsthatacontrarycustomhadprevailedinsomeparticularcaseoramongsomebarbarouspeople。ItwasCharondasthatfirstestablishedpenaltiesagainstfalsewitnesses。[4]Whenthesubjecthasnofencetosecurehisinnocence，hehasnoneforhisliberty。
Theknowledgealreadyacquiredinsomecountries，orthatmaybehereafterattainedinothers，concerningthesurestrulestobeobservedincriminaljudgments，ismoreinterestingtomankindthananyotherthingintheworld。
Libertycanbefoundedonthepracticeofthisknowledgeonly；andsupposingastatetohavethebestlawsimaginableinthisrespect，apersontriedunderthatstate，andcondemnedtobehangedthenextday，wouldhavemuchmorelibertythanapashaenjoysinTurkey。
3。ThesameSubjectcontinued。Thoselawswhichcondemnamantodeathonthedepositionofasinglewitnessarefataltoliberty。Inreasonthereshouldbetwo，becauseawitnesswhoaffirms，andtheaccusedwhodenies，makeanequalbalance，andathirdmustinclinethescale。
TheGreeks[5]andRomans[6]requiredonevoicemoretocondemn：butourFrenchlawsinsistupontwo。TheGreekspretendthattheircustomwasestablishedbythegods；[7]butthismorejustlymaybesaidofours。
4。ThatLibertyisfavouredbytheNatureandProportionofPunishments。
Libertyisinperfectionwhencriminallawsderiveeachpunishmentfromtheparticularnatureofthecrime。Therearethennoarbitrarydecisions；thepunishmentdoesnotflowfromthecapriciousnessofthelegislator，butfromtheverynatureofthething；andmanusesnoviolencetoman。
Therearefoursortsofcrimes。Thoseofthefirstspeciesareprejudicialtoreligion，thesecondtomorals，thethirdtothepublictranquillity，andthefourthtothesecurityofthesubject。Thepunishmentsinflictedforthesecrimesoughttoproceedfromthenatureofeachofthesespecies。
Intheclassofcrimesthatconcernreligion，Irankonlythosewhichattackitdirectly，suchasallsimplesacrileges。Forastocrimesthatdisturbtheexerciseofit，theyareofthenatureofthosewhichprejudicethetranquillityorsecurityofthesubject，andoughttobereferredtothoseclasses。
Inordertoderivethepunishmentofsimplesacrilegesfromthenatureofthething，[8]itshouldconsistindeprivingpeopleoftheadvantagesconferredbyreligioninexpellingthemoutofthetemples，inatemporaryorperpetualexclusionfromthesocietyofthefaithful，inshunningtheirpresence，inexecrations，comminations，andconjurations。
Inthingsthatprejudicethetranquillityorsecurityofthestate，secretactionsaresubjecttohumanjurisdiction。ButinthosewhichoffendtheDeity，wherethereisnopublicact，therecanbenocriminalmatter，thewholepassesbetweenmanandGod，whoknowsthemeasureandtimeofHisvengeance。Nowifmagistrates，confoundingthings，shouldinquirealsointohiddensacrileges，thisinquisitionwouldbedirectedtoakindofactionthatdoesnotatallrequireit：thelibertyofthesubjectwouldbesubvertedbyarmingthezealoftimorousaswellasofpresumptuousconsciencesagainsthim。
ThemischiefarisesfromanotionwhichsomepeoplehaveentertainedofrevengingthecauseoftheDeity。ButwemusthonourtheDeityandleavehimtoavengehisowncause。And，indeed，werewetobedirectedbysuchanotion，wherewouldbetheendofpunishments？IfhumanlawsaretoavengethecauseofaninfiniteBeing，theywillbedirectedbyhisinfinity，andnotbytheweakness，ignorance，andcapriceofman。
Anhistorian[9]ofProvencerelatesafactwhichfurnishesuswithanexcellentdescriptionoftheconsequencesthatmayariseinweakcapacitiesfromthenotionofavengingtheDeity’scause。AJewwasaccusedofhavingblasphemedagainsttheVirginMary；anduponconvictionwascondemnedtobeflayedalive。Astrangespectaclewasthenexhibited：gentlemenmasked，withknivesintheirhands，mountedthescaffold，anddroveawaytheexecutioner，inordertobetheavengersthemselvesofthehonouroftheblessedVirgin。Idonotherechoosetoanticipatethereflectionsofthereader。
Thesecondclassconsistsofthosecrimeswhichareprejudicialtomorals。Suchistheviolationofpublicorprivatecontinence，thatis，ofthepolicedirectingthemannerinwhichthepleasureannexedtotheconjunctionofthesexesistobeenjoyed。Thepunishmentofthosecrimesoughttobealsoderivedfromthenatureofthething；theprivationofsuchadvantagesassocietyhasattachedtothepurityofmorals，fines，shame，necessityofconcealment，publicinfamy，expulsionfromhomeandsociety，and，infine，allsuchpunishmentsasbelongtoacorrectivejurisdiction，aresufficienttorepressthetemerityofthetwosexes。Ineffectthesethingsarelessfoundedonmalicethanoncarelessnessandself—neglect。
Wespeakhereofnonebutcrimeswhichrelatemerelytomorals，forastothosethatarealsoprejudicialtothepublicsecurity，suchasrapes，theybelongtothefourthspecies。
Thecrimesofthethirdclassarethosewhichdisturbthepublictranquillity。Thepunishmentsoughtthereforetobederivedfromthenatureofthething，andtobeinrelationtothistranquillity；suchasimprisonment，exile，andotherlikechastisementsproperforreclaimingturbulentspirits，andobligingthemtoconformtotheestablishedorder。
Iconfinethosecrimesthatinjurethepublictranquillitytothingswhichimplyabareoffenceagainstthepolice；forastothosewhichbydisturbingthepublicpeaceattackatthesametimethesecurityofthesubject，theyoughttoberankedinthefourthclass。
Thepunishmentsinflicteduponthelattercrimesaresuchasareproperlydistinguishedbythatname。Theyareakindofretaliation，bywhichthesocietyrefusessecuritytoamemberwhohasactuallyorintentionallydeprivedanotherofhissecurity。Thesepunishmentsarederivedfromthenatureofthething，foundedonreason，anddrawnfromtheverysourceofgoodandevil。Amandeservesdeathwhenhehasviolatedthesecurityofthesubjectsofarastodeprive，orattempttodeprive，anothermanofhislife。Thispunishmentofdeathistheremedy，asitwere，ofasicksociety。Whenthereisabreachofsecuritywithregardtoproperty，theremaybesomereasonsforinflictingacapitalpunishment：butitwouldbemuchbetter，andperhapsmorenatural，thatcrimescommittedagainstthesecurityofpropertyshouldbepunishedwiththelossofproperty；andthisought，indeed，tobethecaseifmen’sfortuneswerecommonorequal。Butasthosewhohavenopropertyoftheirownaregenerallythereadiesttoattackthatofothers，ithasbeenfoundnecessary，insteadofapecuniary，tosubstituteacorporal，punishment。
AllthatIhavehereadvancedisfoundedinnature，andextremelyfavourabletothelibertyofthesubject。
5。OfcertainAccusationsthatrequireparticularModerationandPrudence。Itisanimportantmaxim，thatweoughttobeverycircumspectintheprosecutionofwitchcraftandheresy。Theaccusationofthesetwocrimesmaybevastlyinjurioustoliberty，andproductiveofinfiniteoppression，ifthelegislatorknowsnothowtosetboundstoit。Forasitdoesnotdirectlypointataperson’sactions，butathischaracter，itgrowsdangerousinproportiontotheignoranceofthepeople；andthenamanissuretobealwaysindanger，becausethemostexceptionalconduct，thepurestmorals，andtheconstantpracticeofeverydutyinlifearenotasufficientsecurityagainstthesuspicionofhisbeingguiltyofthelikecrimes。
UnderManuelComnenus，theProtestator[10]wasaccusedofhavingconspiredagainsttheemperor，andofhavingemployedforthatpurposesomesecretsthatrendermeninvisible。Itismentionedinthelifeofthisemperor[11]thatAaronwasdetected，ashewasporingoverabookofSolomon’s，thereadingofwhichwassufficienttoconjureupwholelegionsofdevils。Nowbysupposingapowerinwitchcrafttorousetheinfernalspiritstoarms，peoplelookuponamanwhomtheycallasorcererasthepersonintheworldmostlikelytodisturbandsubvertsociety；andofcoursetheyaredisposedtopunishhimwiththeutmostseverity。
Buttheirindignationincreaseswhenwitchcraftissupposedtohavethepowerofsubvertingreligion。ThehistoryofConstantinople[12]informsusthatinconsequenceofarevelationmadetoabishopofamiraclehavingceasedbecauseofthemagicpracticesofacertainperson，boththatpersonandhissonwereputtodeath。Onhowmanysurprisingthingsdidnotthissinglecrimedepend？Thatrevelationsshouldnotbeuncommon，thatthebishopshouldbefavouredwithone，thatitwasreal，thattherehadbeenamiracleinthecase，thatthismiraclehadceased，thattherewasamagicart，thatmagiccouldsubvertreligion，thatthisparticularpersonwasamagician，and，infine，thathehadcommittedthatmagicact。
TheEmperorTheodorusLascarisattributedhisillnesstowitchcraft。
Thosewhowereaccusedofthiscrimehadnootherresourceleftthantohandleared—hotironwithoutbeinghurt。ThusamongtheGreeksapersonoughttohavebeenasorcerertobeabletoclearhimselfoftheimputationofwitchcraft。Suchwastheexcessoftheirstupiditythattothemostdubiouscrimeintheworldtheyjoinedthemostdubiousproofsofinnocence。
UnderthereignofPhiliptheLong，theJewswereexpelledfromFrance，beingaccusedofhavingpoisonedthespringswiththeirlepers。Soabsurdanaccusationoughttomakeusdoubtallthosethatarefoundedonpublichatred。
Ihavenothereassertedthatheresyoughtnottobepunished；Isaidonlythatweoughttobeextremelycircumspectinpunishingit。
6。OftheCrimeagainstNature。GodforbidthatIshouldhavetheleastinclinationtodiminishthepublichorroragainstacrimewhichreligion，morality，andcivilgovernmentequallycondemn。Itoughttobeproscribed，wereitonlyforitscommunicatingtoonesextheweaknessesoftheother，andforleadingpeoplebyascandalousprostitutionoftheiryouthtoanignominiousoldage。WhatIshallsayconcerningitwillinnowaydiminishitsinfamy，beinglevelledonlyagainstthetyrannythatmayabusetheveryhorrorweoughttohaveagainstthevice。
Asanaturalcircumstanceofthiscrimeissecrecy，therearefrequentinstancesofitshavingbeenpunishedbylegislatorsuponthedepositionofachild。Thiswasopeningaverywidedoortocalumny。\"Justinian，\"
saysProcopius，[13]\"publishedalawagainstthiscrime；heorderedaninquirytobemadenotonlyagainstthosewhowereguiltyofit，aftertheenactingofthatlaw，butevenbefore。Thedepositionofasinglewitness，sometimesofachild，sometimesofaslave，wassufficient，especiallyagainstsuchaswererich，andagainstthoseofthegreenfaction。\"
Itisveryoddthatthesethreecrimes，witchcraft，heresy，andthatagainstnature，ofwhichthefirstmighteasilybeprovednottoexist；
thesecondtobesusceptibleofaninfinitenumberofdistinctions，interpretations，andlimitations；thethirdtobeoftenobscureanduncertain——itisveryodd，Isay，thatthesethreecrimesshouldamongstusbepunishedwithfire。
Imayventuretoaffirmthatthecrimeagainstnaturewillnevermakeanygreatprogressinsociety，unlesspeoplearepromptedtoitbysomeparticularcustom，asamongtheGreeks，wheretheyouthsofthatcountryperformedalltheirexercisesnaked；asamongstus，wheredomesticeducationisdisused；asamongsttheAsiatics，whereparticularpersonshaveagreatnumberofwomenwhomtheydespise，whileotherscanhavenoneatall。Lettherebenocustomspreparatorytothiscrime；letit，likeeveryotherviolationofmorals，beseverelyproscribedbythecivilmagistrate；andnaturewillsoondefendorresumeherrights。
Nature，thatfond，thatindulgentparent，hasstrewnherpleasureswithabounteoushand，andwhileshefillsuswithdelights，shepreparesus，bymeansofourissue，inwhomweseeourselves，asitwere，reproduced——shepreparesus，Isay，forfuturesatisfactionsofamoreexquisitekindthanthoseverydelights。
7。OftheCrimeofHighTreason。ItisdeterminedbythelawsofChinathatwhosoevershowsanydisrespecttotheemperoristobepunishedwithdeath。Astheydonotmentioninwhatthisdisrespectconsists，everythingmayfurnishapretexttotakeawayaman’slife，andtoexterminateanyfamilywhatsoever。
Twopersonsofthatcountrywhowereemployedtowritethecourtgazette，havinginsertedsomecircumstancesrelatingtoacertainfactthatwasnottrue，itwaspretendedthattotellalieinthecourtgazettewasadisrespectshowntothecourt，inconsequenceofwhichtheywereputtodeath。[14]Aprinceofthebloodhavinginadvertentlymadesomemarkonamemorialsignedwiththeredpencilbytheemperor，itwasdeterminedthathehadbehaveddisrespectfullytothesovereign；
whichoccasionedoneofthemostterriblepersecutionsagainstthatfamilythateverwasrecordedinhistory。[15]
Ifthecrimeofhightreasonbeindeterminate，thisaloneissufficienttomakethegovernmentdegenerateintoarbitrarypower。IshalldescantmorelargelyonthissubjectwhenIcometotreat[16]ofthecompositionoflaws。
8。OftheMisapplicationoftheTermsSacrilegeandHighTreason。Itislikewiseashockingabusetogivetheappellationofhightreasontoanactionthatdoesnotdeserveit。Byanimperiallaw[17]itwasdecreedthatthosewhocalledinquestiontheprince’sjudgment，ordoubtedthemeritofsuchashehadchosenforapublicoffice，shouldbeprosecutedasguiltyofsacrilege。[18]Surelyitwasthecabinetcouncilandtheprince’sfavouriteswhoinventedthatcrime。Byanotherlaw，itwasdeterminedthatwhosoevermadeanyattempttoinjuretheministersandofficersbelongingtothesovereignshouldbedeemedguiltyofhightreason，asifhehadattemptedtoinjurethesovereignhimself。[19]
Thislawisowingtotwoprinces[20]remarkablefortheirweakness——
princeswhowereledbytheirministersasflocksbyshepherds；princeswhowereslavesinthepalace，childreninthecouncil，strangerstothearmy；princes，infine，whopreservedtheirauthorityonlybygivingitawayeveryday。Someofthosefavouritesconspiredagainsttheirsovereigns。Nay，theydidmore，theyconspiredagainsttheempire——
theycalledinbarbarousnations；andwhentheemperorswantedtostoptheirprogressthestatewassoenfeebledastobeunderanecessityofinfringingthelaw，andofexposingitselftothecrimeofhightreasoninordertopunishthosefavourites。
AndyetthisistheverylawwhichthejudgeofMonsieurdeCinq—Marsbuiltupon[21]whenendeavouringtoprovethatthelatterwasguiltyofthecrimeofhightreasonforattemptingtoremoveCardinalRichelieufromtheministry。Hesays：\"Crimesthataimatthepersonsofministersaredeemedbytheimperialconstitutionsofequalconsequencewiththosewhicharelevelledagainsttheemperor’sownperson。Aministerdischargeshisdutytohisprinceandtohiscountry：toattempt，therefore，toremovehim，isendeavouringtodeprivetheformeroneofhisarms，[22]andthelatterofpartofitspower。\"Itisimpossibleforthemeanesttoolsofpowertoexpressthemselvesinmoreservilelanguage。
ByanotherlawofValentinian，Theodosius，andArcadius，[23]falsecoinersaredeclaredguiltyofhightreason。Butisnotthisconfoundingtheideasofthings？Isnottheveryhorrorofhightreasondiminishedbygivingthatnametoanothercrime？
9。ThesameSubjectcontinued。PaulinushavingwrittentotheEmperorAlexanderthat\"hewaspreparingtoprosecuteforhightreasonajudgewhohaddecidedcontrarytohisedict，\"theemperoranswered，\"thatunderhisreigntherewasnosuchthingasindirecthightreason。\"[24]
Faustinianwrotetothesameemperorthatashehadswornbytheprince’slifenevertopardonhisslave，hefoundhimselftherebyobligedtoperpetuatehiswrath，lestheshouldincurtheguiltofl？samajestas。Uponwhichtheemperormadeanswer，\"Yourfearsaregroundless，[25]andyouareastrangertomyprinciples。\"
Itwasdeterminedbyasenatus—consultum[26]thatwhosoevermelteddownanyoftheemperor’sstatueswhichhappenedtoberejectedshouldnotbedeemedguiltyofhightreason。TheEmperorsSeverusandAntoninuswrotetoPontius[27]thatthosewhosoldunconsecratedstatuesoftheemperorshouldnotbechargedwithhightreason。ThesameprinceswrotetoJuliusCassianusthatifapersoninflingingastoneshouldbychancestrikeoneoftheemperor’sstatuesheshouldnotbeliabletoaprosecutionforhightreason。[28]TheJulianlawrequiresthissortoflimitations；forinvirtueofthislawthecrimeofhightreasonwaschargednotonlyuponthosewhomelteddowntheemperor’sstatues，butlikewiseonthosewhocommittedanysuchlikeaction，[29]whichmadeitanarbitrarycrime。Whenanumberofcrimesofl？samajestashadbeenestablished，theywereobligedtodistinguishtheseveralsorts。HenceUlpian，thecivilian，aftersayingthattheaccusationofl？samajestasdidnotdiewiththecriminal，addsthatthisdoesnotrelatetoallthetreasonableactsestablishedbytheJulianlaw，[30]butonlytothatwhichimpliesanattemptagainsttheempire，oragainsttheemperor’slife。
10。ThesameSubjectcontinued。TherewasalawpassedinEnglandunderHenryVIII，bywhichwhoeverpredictedtheking’sdeathwasdeclaredguiltyofhightreason。Thislawwasextremelyvague；theterrorofdespoticpowerissogreatthatitrecoilsuponthosewhoexerciseit。
