第23章

ButImustalsoremindyou，thatthepowerofdialecticalonecanrevealthis，andonlytoonewhoisadiscipleoftheprevioussciences。 Ofthatassertionyoumaybeasconfidentasofthelast。 Andassuredlynoonewillarguethatthereisanyothermethodofcomprehendingbyanyregularprocessalltrueexistenceorofascertainingwhateachthingisinitsownnature；fortheartsingeneralareconcernedwiththedesiresoropinionsofmen，orarecultivatedwithaviewtoproductionandconstruction，orforthepreservationofsuchproductionsandconstructions；andastothemathematicalscienceswhich，asweweresaying，havesomeapprehensionoftruebeing——geometryandthelike——theyonlydreamaboutbeing，butnevercantheybeholdthewakingrealitysolongastheyleavethehypotheseswhichtheyuseunexamined，andareunabletogiveanaccountofthem。Forwhenamanknowsnothisownfirstprinciple，andwhentheconclusionandintermediatestepsarealsoconstructedoutofheknowsnotwhat，howcanheimaginethatsuchafabricofconventioncaneverbecomescience？ Impossible，hesaid。 Thendialectic，anddialecticalone，goesdirectlytothefirstprincipleandistheonlysciencewhichdoesawaywithhypothesesinordertomakehergroundsecure；theeyeofthesoul，whichisliterallyburiedinanoutlandishslough，isbyhergentleaidliftedupwards；andsheusesashandmaidsandhelpersintheworkofconversion，thescienceswhichwehavebeendiscussing。Customtermsthemsciences，buttheyoughttohavesomeothername，implyinggreaterclearnessthanopinionandlessclearnessthanscience：andthis，inourprevioussketch，wascalledunderstanding。Butwhyshouldwedisputeaboutnameswhenwehaverealitiesofsuchimportancetoconsider？ Whyindeed，hesaid，whenanynamewilldowhichexpressesthethoughtofthemindwithclearness？ Atanyrate，wearesatisfied，asbefore，tohavefourdivisions； twoforintellectandtwoforopinion，andtocallthefirstdivisionscience，thesecondunderstanding，thethirdbelief，andthefourthperceptionofshadows，opinionbeingconcernedwithbecoming，andintellectwithbeing；andsotomakeaproportion：—— Asbeingistobecoming，soispureintellecttoopinion。 Andasintellectistoopinion，soissciencetobelief，andunderstandingtotheperceptionofshadows。 Butletusdeferthefurthercorrelationandsubdivisionofthesubjectsofopinionandofintellect，foritwillbealongenquiry，manytimeslongerthanthishasbeen。 AsfarasIunderstand，hesaid，Iagree。 Anddoyoualsoagree，Isaid，indescribingthedialecticianasonewhoattainsaconceptionoftheessenceofeachthing？Andhewhodoesnotpossessandisthereforeunabletoimpartthisconception，inwhateverdegreehefails，mayinthatdegreealsobesaidtofailinintelligence？Willyouadmitsomuch？ Yes，hesaid；howcanIdenyit？ Andyouwouldsaythesameoftheconceptionofthegood？ Untilthepersonisabletoabstractanddefinerationallytheideaofgood，andunlesshecanrunthegauntletofallobjections，andisreadytodisprovethem，notbyappealstoopinion，buttoabsolutetruth，neverfalteringatanystepoftheargument——unlesshecandoallthis，youwouldsaythatheknowsneithertheideaofgoodnoranyothergood；heapprehendsonlyashadow，ifanythingatall，whichisgivenbyopinionandnotbyscience；——dreamingandslumberinginthislife，beforeheiswellawakehere，hearrivesattheworldbelow，andhashisfinalquietus。 InallthatIshouldmostcertainlyagreewithyou。 AndsurelyyouwouldnothavethechildrenofyouridealState，whomyouarenurturingandeducating——iftheidealeverbecomesareality——youwouldnotallowthefuturerulerstobelikeposts，havingnoreasoninthem，andyettobesetinauthorityoverthehighestmatters？ Certainlynot。 Thenyouwillmakealawthattheyshallhavesuchaneducationaswillenablethemtoattainthegreatestskillinaskingandansweringquestions？ Yes，hesaid，youandItogetherwillmakeit。 Dialectic，then，asyouwillagree，isthecoping—stoneofthesciences，andissetoverthem；noothersciencecanbeplacedhigher——thenatureofknowledgecannofurthergo？ Iagree，hesaid。 Buttowhomwearetoassignthesestudies，andinwhatwaytheyaretobeassigned，arequestionswhichremaintobeconsidered？ Yes，clearly。 Youremember，Isaid，howtherulerswerechosenbefore？ Certainly，hesaid。 Thesamenaturesmuststillbechosen，andthepreferenceagaingiventothesurestandthebravest，and，ifpossible，tothefairest； and，havingnobleandgeneroustempers，theyshouldalsohavethenaturalgiftswhichwillfacilitatetheireducation。 Andwhatarethese？ Suchgiftsaskeennessandreadypowersofacquisition；forthemindmoreoftenfaintsfromtheseverityofstudythanfromtheseverityofgymnastics：thetoilismoreentirelythemind’sown，andisnotsharedwiththebody。 Verytrue，hereplied。 Further，heofwhomweareinsearchshouldhaveagoodmemory，andbeanunweariedsolidmanwhoisaloveroflabourinanyline；orhewillneverbeabletoendurethegreatamountofbodilyexerciseandtogothroughalltheintellectualdisciplineandstudywhichwerequireofhim。 Certainly，hesaid；hemusthavenaturalgifts。 Themistakeatpresentis，thatthosewhostudyphilosophyhavenovocation，andthis，asIwasbeforesaying，isthereasonwhyshehasfallenintodisrepute：hertruesonsshouldtakeherbythehandandnotbastards。 Whatdoyoumean？ Inthefirstplace，hervotaryshouldnothavealameorhaltingindustry——Imean，thatheshouldnotbehalfindustriousandhalfidle：as，forexample，whenamanisaloverofgymnasticandhunting，andallotherbodilyexercises，butahaterratherthanaloverofthelabouroflearningorlisteningorenquiring。Ortheoccupationtowhichhedevoteshimselfmaybeofanoppositekind，andhemayhavetheothersortoflameness。 Certainly，hesaid。 Andastotruth，Isaid，isnotasoulequallytobedeemedhaltandlamewhichhatesvoluntaryfalsehoodandisextremelyindignantatherselfandotherswhentheytelllies，butispatientofinvoluntaryfalsehood，anddoesnotmindwallowinglikeaswinishbeastinthemireofignorance，andhasnoshameatbeingdetected？ Tobesure。 And，again，inrespectoftemperance，courage，magnificence，andeveryothervirtue，shouldwenotcarefullydistinguishbetweenthetruesonandthebastard？forwherethereisnodiscernmentofsuchqualitiesStatesandindividualsunconsciouslyerrandtheStatemakesaruler，andtheindividualafriend，ofonewho，beingdefectiveinsomepartofvirtue，isinafigurelameorabastard。 Thatisverytrue，hesaid。 Allthesethings，then，willhavetobecarefullyconsideredbyus；andifonlythosewhomweintroducetothisvastsystemofeducationandtrainingaresoundinbodyandmind，justiceherselfwillhavenothingtosayagainstus，andweshallbethesavioursoftheconstitutionandoftheState；but，ifourpupilsaremenofanotherstamp，thereversewillhappen，andweshallpourastillgreaterfloodofridiculeonphilosophythanshehastoendureatpresent。 Thatwouldnotbecreditable。 Certainlynot，Isaid；andyetperhaps，inthusturningjestintoearnestIamequallyridiculous。 Inwhatrespect？ Ihadforgotten，Isaid，thatwewerenotserious，andspokewithtoomuchexcitement。ForwhenIsawphilosophysoundeservedlytrampledunderfootofmenIcouldnothelpfeelingasortofindignationattheauthorsofherdisgrace：andmyangermademetoovehement。 Indeed！Iwaslistening，anddidnotthinkso。 ButI，whoamthespeaker，feltthatIwas。Andnowletmeremindyouthat，althoughinourformerselectionwechoseoldmen，wemustnotdosointhis。Solonwasunderadelusionwhenhesaidthatamanwhenhegrowsoldmaylearnmanythings——forhecannomorelearnmuchthanhecanrunmuch；youthisthetimeforanyextraordinarytoil。 Ofcourse。 And，therefore，calculationandgeometryandalltheotherelementsofinstruction，whichareapreparationfordialectic，shouldbepresentedtothemindinchildhood；not，however，underanynotionofforcingoursystemofeducation。 Whynot？ Becauseafreemanoughtnottobeaslaveintheacquisitionofknowledgeofanykind。Bodilyexercise，whencompulsory，doesnoharmtothebody；butknowledgewhichisacquiredundercompulsionobtainsnoholdonthemind。 Verytrue。 Then，mygoodfriend，Isaid，donotusecompulsion，butletearlyeducationbeasortofamusement；youwillthenbebetterabletofindoutthenaturalbent。 Thatisaveryrationalnotion，hesaid。 Doyourememberthatthechildren，too，weretobetakentoseethebattleonhorseback；andthatiftherewerenodangertheyweretobebroughtcloseupand，likeyounghounds，haveatasteofbloodgiventhem？ Yes，Iremember。 Thesamepracticemaybefollowed，Isaid，inallthesethings——labours，lessons，dangers——andhewhoismostathomeinallofthemoughttobeenrolledinaselectnumber。 Atwhatage？ Attheagewhenthenecessarygymnasticsareover：theperiodwhetheroftwoorthreeyearswhichpassesinthissortoftrainingisuselessforanyotherpurpose；forsleepandexerciseareunpropitioustolearning；andthetrialofwhoisfirstingymnasticexercisesisoneofthemostimportantteststowhichouryoutharesubjected。 Certainly，hereplied。 Afterthattimethosewhoareselectedfromtheclassoftwentyyearsoldwillbepromotedtohigherhonour，andthescienceswhichtheylearnedwithoutanyorderintheirearlyeducationwillnowbebroughttogether，andtheywillbeabletoseethenaturalrelationshipofthemtooneanotherandtotruebeing。 Yes，hesaid，thatistheonlykindofknowledgewhichtakeslastingroot。 Yes，Isaid；andthecapacityforsuchknowledgeisthegreatcriterionofdialecticaltalent：thecomprehensivemindisalwaysthedialectical。 Iagreewithyou，hesaid。 These，Isaid，arethepointswhichyoumustconsider；andthosewhohavemostofthiscomprehension，andwhoaremoresteadfastintheirlearning，andintheirmilitaryandotherappointedduties，whentheyhavearrivedattheageofthirtyhavetobechosenbyyououtoftheselectclass，andelevatedtohigherhonour；andyouwillhavetoprovethembythehelpofdialectic，inordertolearnwhichofthemisabletogiveuptheuseofsightandtheothersenses，andincompanywithtruthtoattainabsolutebeing：Andhere，myfriend，greatcautionisrequired。 Whygreatcaution？ Doyounotremark，Isaid，howgreatistheevilwhichdialectichasintroduced？ Whatevil？hesaid。 Thestudentsoftheartarefilledwithlawlessness。 Quitetrue，hesaid。 Doyouthinkthatthereisanythingsoveryunnaturalorinexcusableintheircase？orwillyoumakeallowanceforthem？ Inwhatwaymakeallowance？ Iwantyou，Isaid，bywayofparallel，toimagineasupposititioussonwhoisbroughtupingreatwealth；heisoneofagreatandnumerousfamily，andhasmanyflatterers。Whenhegrowsuptomanhood，helearnsthathisallegedarenothisrealparents；butwhotherealareheisunabletodiscover。Canyouguesshowhewillbelikelytobehavetowardshisflatterersandhissupposedparents，firstofallduringtheperiodwhenheisignorantofthefalserelation，andthenagainwhenheknows？OrshallIguessforyou？ Ifyouplease。 ThenIshouldsay，thatwhileheisignorantofthetruthhewillbelikelytohonourhisfatherandhismotherandhissupposedrelationsmorethantheflatterers；hewillbelessinclinedtoneglectthemwheninneed，ortodoorsayanythingagainstthem； andhewillbelesswillingtodisobeytheminanyimportantmatter。 Hewill。 Butwhenhehasmadethediscovery，Ishouldimaginethathewoulddiminishhishonourandregardforthem，andwouldbecomemoredevotedtotheflatterers；theirinfluenceoverhimwouldgreatlyincrease；hewouldnowliveaftertheirways，andopenlyassociatewiththem，and，unlesshewereofanunusuallygooddisposition，hewouldtroublehimselfnomoreabouthissupposedparentsorotherrelations。 Well，allthatisveryprobable。Buthowistheimageapplicabletothedisciplesofphilosophy？ Inthisway：youknowthattherearecertainprinciplesaboutjusticeandhonour，whichweretaughtusinchildhood，andundertheirparentalauthoritywehavebeenbroughtup，obeyingandhonouringthem。 Thatistrue。 Therearealsooppositemaximsandhabitsofpleasurewhichflatterandattractthesoul，butdonotinfluencethoseofuswhohaveanysenseofright，andtheycontinuetoobeyandhonourthemaximsoftheirfathers。 True。 Now，whenamanisinthisstate，andthequestioningspiritaskswhatisfairorhonourable，andheanswersasthelegislatorhastaughthim，andthenargumentsmanyanddiverserefutehiswords，untilheisdrivenintobelievingthatnothingishonourableanymorethandishonourable，orjustandgoodanymorethanthereverse，andsoofallthenotionswhichhemostvalued，doyouthinkthathewillstillhonourandobeythemasbefore？ Impossible。 Andwhenheceasestothinkthemhonourableandnaturalasheretofore，andhefailstodiscoverthetrue，canhebeexpectedtopursueanylifeotherthanthatwhichflattershisdesires？ Hecannot。 Andfrombeingakeeperofthelawheisconvertedintoabreakerofit？ Unquestionably。 NowallthisisverynaturalinstudentsofphilosophysuchasI havedescribed，andalso，asIwasjustnowsaying，mostexcusable。 Yes，hesaid；and，Imayadd，pitiable。 Therefore，thatyourfeelingsmaynotbemovedtopityaboutourcitizenswhoarenowthirtyyearsofage，everycaremustbetakeninintroducingthemtodialectic。 Certainly。 Thereisadangerlesttheyshouldtastethedeardelighttooearly； foryoungsters，asyoumayhaveobserved，whentheyfirstgetthetasteintheirmouths，argueforamusement，andarealwayscontradictingandrefutingothersinimitationofthosewhorefutethem；likepuppy—dogs，theyrejoiceinpullingandtearingatallwhocomenearthem。 Yes，hesaid，thereisnothingwhichtheylikebetter。 Andwhentheyhavemademanyconquestsandreceiveddefeatsatthehandsofmany，theyviolentlyandspeedilygetintoawayofnotbelievinganythingwhichtheybelievedbefore，andhence，notonlythey，butphilosophyandallthatrelatestoitisapttohaveabadnamewiththerestoftheworld。 Tootrue，hesaid。 Butwhenamanbeginstogetolder，hewillnolongerbeguiltyofsuchinsanity；hewillimitatethedialecticianwhoisseekingfortruth，andnottheeristic，whoiscontradictingforthesakeofamusement；andthegreatermoderationofhischaracterwillincreaseinsteadofdiminishingthehonourofthepursuit。 Verytrue，hesaid。 Anddidwenotmakespecialprovisionforthis，whenwesaidthatthedisciplesofphilosophyweretobeorderlyandsteadfast，not，asnow，anychanceaspirantorintruder？ Verytrue。 Suppose，Isaid，thestudyofphilosophytotaketheplaceofgymnasticsandtobecontinueddiligentlyandearnestlyandexclusivelyfortwicethenumberofyearswhichwerepassedinbodilyexercise——willthatbeenough？ Wouldyousaysixorfouryears？heasked。 Sayfiveyears，Ireplied；attheendofthetimetheymustbesentdownagainintothedenandcompelledtoholdanymilitaryorotherofficewhichyoungmenarequalifiedtohold：inthiswaytheywillgettheirexperienceoflife，andtherewillbeanopportunityoftryingwhether，whentheyaredrawnallmannerofwaysbytemptation，theywillstandfirmorflinch。 Andhowlongisthisstageoftheirlivestolast？ Fifteenyears，Ianswered；andwhentheyhavereachedfiftyyearsofage，thenletthosewhostillsurviveandhavedistinguishedthemselvesineveryactionoftheirlivesandineverybranchofknowledgecomeatlasttotheirconsummation；thetimehasnowarrivedatwhichtheymustraisetheeyeofthesoultotheuniversallightwhichlightensallthings，andbeholdtheabsolutegood；forthatisthe，patternaccordingtowhichtheyaretoordertheStateandthelivesofindividuals，andtheremainderoftheirownlivesalso； makingphilosophytheirchiefpursuit，but，whentheirturncomes，toilingalsoatpoliticsandrulingforthepublicgood，notasthoughtheywereperformingsomeheroicaction，butsimplyasamatterofduty；andwhentheyhavebroughtupineachgenerationotherslikethemselvesandleftthemintheirplacetobegovernorsoftheState，thentheywilldeparttotheIslandsoftheBlestanddwellthere；andthecitywillgivethempublicmemorialsandsacrificesandhonourthem，ifthePythianoracleconsent，asdemi—gods，butifnot，asinanycaseblessedanddivine。 Youareasculptor，Socrates，andhavemadestatuesofourgovernorsfaultlessinbeauty。 Yes，Isaid，Glaucon，andofourgovernessestoo；foryoumustnotsupposethatwhatIhavebeensayingappliestomenonlyandnottowomenasfarastheirnaturescango。 Thereyouareright，hesaid，sincewehavemadethemtoshareinallthingslikethemen。 Well，Isaid，andyouwouldagree（wouldyounot？）thatwhathasbeensaidabouttheStateandthegovernmentisnotameredream，andalthoughdifficultnotimpossible，butonlypossibleinthewaywhichhasbeensupposed；thatistosay，whenthetruephilosopherkingsareborninaState，oneormoreofthem，despisingthehonoursofthispresentworldwhichtheydeemmeanandworthless，esteemingaboveallthingsrightandthehonourthatspringsfromright，andregardingjusticeasthegreatestandmostnecessaryofallthings，whoseministerstheyare，andwhoseprincipleswillbeexaltedbythemwhentheysetinordertheirowncity？ Howwilltheyproceed？ Theywillbeginbysendingoutintothecountryalltheinhabitantsofthecitywhoaremorethantenyearsold，andwilltakepossessionoftheirchildren，whowillbeunaffectedbythehabitsoftheirparents；thesetheywilltrainintheirownhabitsandlaws，Imeaninthelawswhichwehavegiventhem：andinthiswaytheStateandconstitutionofwhichwewerespeakingwillsoonestandmosteasilyattainhappiness，andthenationwhichhassuchaconstitutionwillgainmost。 Yes，thatwillbethebestway。AndIthink，Socrates，thatyouhaveverywelldescribedhow，ifever，suchaconstitutionmightcomeintobeing。 EnoughthenoftheperfectState，andofthemanwhobearsitsimage——thereisnodifficultyinseeinghowweshalldescribehim。 Thereisnodifficulty，hereplied；andIagreewithyouinthinkingthatnothingmoreneedbesaid。 BOOKVIII SOCRATES—GLAUCON ANDso，Glaucon，wehavearrivedattheconclusionthatintheperfectStatewivesandchildrenaretobeincommon；andthatalleducationandthepursuitsofwarandpeacearealsotobecommon，andthebestphilosophersandthebravestwarriorsaretobetheirkings？ That，repliedGlaucon，hasbeenacknowledged。 Yes，Isaid；andwehavefurtheracknowledgedthatthegovernors，whenappointedthemselves，willtaketheirsoldiersandplacetheminhousessuchasweweredescribing，whicharecommontoall，andcontainnothingprivate，orindividual；andabouttheirproperty，yourememberwhatweagreed？ Yes，Irememberthatnoonewastohaveanyoftheordinarypossessionsofmankind；theyweretobewarriorathletesandguardians，receivingfromtheothercitizens，inlieuofannualpayment，onlytheirmaintenance，andtheyweretotakecareofthemselvesandofthewholeState。 True，Isaid；andnowthatthisdivisionofourtaskisconcluded，letusfindthepointatwhichwedigressed，thatwemayreturnintotheoldpath。 Thereisnodifficultyinreturning；youimplied，thenasnow，thatyouhadfinishedthedescriptionoftheState：yousaidthatsuchaStatewasgood，andthatthemanwasgoodwhoansweredtoit，although，asnowappears，youhadmoreexcellentthingstorelatebothofStateandman。Andyousaidfurther，thatifthiswasthetrueform，thentheotherswerefalse；andofthefalseforms，yousaid，asIremember，thattherewerefourprincipalones，andthattheirdefects，andthedefectsoftheindividualscorrespondingtothem，wereworthexamining。Whenwehadseenalltheindividuals，andfinallyagreedastowhowasthebestandwhowastheworstofthem，weweretoconsiderwhetherthebestwasnotalsothehappiest，andtheworstthemostmiserable。Iaskedyouwhatwerethefourformsofgovernmentofwhichyouspoke，andthenPolemarchusandAdeimantusputintheirword；andyoubeganagain，andhavefoundyourwaytothepointatwhichwehavenowarrived。 Yourrecollection，Isaid，ismostexact。 Then，likeawrestler，hereplied，youmustputyourselfagaininthesameposition；andletmeaskthesamequestions，anddoyougivemethesameanswerwhichyouwereabouttogivemethen。 Yes，ifIcan，Iwill，Isaid。 Ishallparticularlywishtohearwhatwerethefourconstitutionsofwhichyouwerespeaking。 Thatquestion，Isaid，iseasilyanswered：thefourgovernmentsofwhichIspoke，sofarastheyhavedistinctnames，are，first，thoseofCreteandSparta，whicharegenerallyapplauded；whatistermedoligarchycomesnext；thisisnotequallyapproved，andisaformofgovernmentwhichteemswithevils：thirdly，democracy，whichnaturallyfollowsoligarchy，althoughverydifferent：andlastlycomestyranny，greatandfamous，whichdiffersfromthemall，andisthefourthandworstdisorderofaState。Idonotknow，doyou？ofanyotherconstitutionwhichcanbesaidtohaveadistinctcharacter。 Therearelordshipsandprincipalitieswhichareboughtandsold，andsomeotherintermediateformsofgovernment。ButthesearenondescriptsandmaybefoundequallyamongHellenesandamongbarbarians。 Yes，hereplied，wecertainlyhearofmanycuriousformsofgovernmentwhichexistamongthem。 Doyouknow，Isaid，thatgovernmentsvaryasthedispositionsofmenvary，andthattheremustbeasmanyoftheoneasthereareoftheother？ForwecannotsupposethatStatesaremadeof’oakandrock，’andnotoutofthehumannatureswhichareinthem，andwhichinafigureturnthescaleanddrawotherthingsafterthem？ Yes，hesaid，theStatesareasthemenare；theygrowoutofhumancharacters。 TheniftheconstitutionsofStatesarefive，thedispositionsofindividualmindswillalsobefive？ Certainly。 Himwhoanswerstoaristocracy，andwhomwerightlycalljustandgood，wehavealreadydescribed。 Wehave。