第20章

Andonefeaturetheywillerase，andanothertheywillputin，theyhavemadethewaysofmen，asfaraspossible，agreeabletothewaysofGod？ Indeed，hesaid，innowaycouldtheymakeafairerpicture。 Andnow，Isaid，arewebeginningtopersuadethosewhomyoudescribedasrushingatuswithmightandmain，thatthepainterofconstitutionsissuchanoneaswearepraising；atwhomtheyweresoveryindignantbecausetohishandswecommittedtheState；andaretheygrowingalittlecalmeratwhattheyhavejustheard？ Muchcalmer，ifthereisanysenseinthem。 Why，wherecantheystillfindanygroundforobjection？Willtheydoubtthatthephilosopherisaloveroftruthandbeing？ Theywouldnotbesounreasonable。 Orthathisnature，beingsuchaswehavedelineated，isakintothehighestgood？ Neithercantheydoubtthis。 Butagain，willtheytellusthatsuchanature，placedunderfavourablecircumstances，willnotbeperfectlygoodandwiseifanyeverwas？Orwilltheypreferthosewhomwehaverejected？ Surelynot。 Thenwilltheystillbeangryatoursaying，that，untilphilosophersbearrule，Statesandindividualswillhavenorestfromevil，norwillthisourimaginaryStateeverberealised？ Ithinkthattheywillbelessangry。 Shallweassumethattheyarenotonlylessangrybutquitegentle，andthattheyhavebeenconvertedandforveryshame，iffornootherreason，cannotrefusetocometoterms？ Byallmeans，hesaid。 Thenletussupposethatthereconciliationhasbeeneffected。 Willanyonedenytheotherpoint，thattheremaybesonsofkingsorprinceswhoarebynaturephilosophers？ Surelynoman，hesaid。 Andwhentheyhavecomeintobeingwillanyonesaythattheymustofnecessitybedestroyed；thattheycanhardlybesavedisnotdeniedevenbyus；butthatinthewholecourseofagesnosingleoneofthemcanescape——whowillventuretoaffirmthis？ Whoindeed！ But，saidI，oneisenough；lettherebeonemanwhohasacityobedienttohiswill，andhemightbringintoexistencetheidealpolityaboutwhichtheworldissoincredulous。 Yes，oneisenough。 Therulermayimposethelawsandinstitutionswhichwehavebeendescribing，andthecitizensmaypossiblybewillingtoobeythem？ Certainly。 Andthatothersshouldapproveofwhatweapprove，isnomiracleorimpossibility？ Ithinknot。 Butwehavesufficientlyshown，inwhathaspreceded，thatallthis，ifonlypossible，isassuredlyforthebest。 Wehave。 Andnowwesaynotonlythatourlaws，iftheycouldbeenacted，wouldbeforthebest，butalsothattheenactmentofthem，thoughdifficult，isnotimpossible。 Verygood。 Andsowithpainandtoilwehavereachedtheendofonesubject，butmoreremainstobediscussed；——howandbywhatstudiesandpursuitswillthesavioursoftheconstitutionbecreated，andatwhatagesaretheytoapplythemselvestotheirseveralstudies？ Certainly。 Iomittedthetroublesomebusinessofthepossessionofwomen，andtheprocreationofchildren，andtheappointmentoftherulers，becauseIknewthattheperfectStatewouldbeeyedwithjealousyandwasdifficultofattainment；butthatpieceofclevernesswasnotofmuchservicetome，forIhadtodiscussthemallthesame。Thewomenandchildrenarenowdisposedof，buttheotherquestionoftherulersmustbeinvestigatedfromtheverybeginning。Weweresaying，asyouwillremember，thattheyweretobeloversoftheircountry，triedbythetestofpleasuresandpains，andneitherinhardships，norindangers，noratanyothercriticalmomentweretolosetheirpatriotism——hewastoberejectedwhofailed，buthewhoalwayscameforthpure，likegoldtriedintherefiner’sfire，wastobemadearuler，andtoreceivehonoursandrewardsinlifeandafterdeath。Thiswasthesortofthingwhichwasbeingsaid，andthentheargumentturnedasideandveiledherface；notlikingtostirthequestionwhichhasnowarisen。 Iperfectlyremember，hesaid。 Yes，myfriend，Isaid，andIthenshrankfromhazardingtheboldword；butnowletmedaretosay——thattheperfectguardianmustbeaphilosopher。 Yes，hesaid，letthatbeaffirmed。 Anddonotsupposethattherewillbemanyofthem；forthegiftswhichweredeemedbyustobeessentialrarelygrowtogether；theyaremostlyfoundinshredsandpatches。 Whatdoyoumean？hesaid。 Youareaware，Ireplied，thatquickintelligence，memory，sagacity，cleverness，andsimilarqualities，donotoftengrowtogether，andthatpersonswhopossessthemandareatthesametimehigh—spiritedandmagnanimousarenotsoconstitutedbynatureastoliveorderlyandinapeacefulandsettledmanner；theyaredrivenanywaybytheirimpulses，andallsolidprinciplegoesoutofthem。 Verytrue，hesaid。 Ontheotherhand，thosesteadfastnatureswhichcanbetterbedependedupon，whichinabattleareimpregnabletofearandimmovable，areequallyimmovablewhenthereisanythingtobelearned； theyarealwaysinatorpidstate，andareapttoyawnandgotosleepoveranyintellectualtoil。 Quitetrue。 Andyetweweresayingthatbothqualitieswerenecessaryinthosetowhomthehighereducationistobeimparted，andwhoaretoshareinanyofficeorcommand。 Certainly，hesaid。 Andwilltheybeaclasswhichisrarelyfound？ Yes，indeed。 Thentheaspirantmustnotonlybetestedinthoselaboursanddangersandpleasureswhichwementionedbefore，butthereisanotherkindofprobationwhichwedidnotmention——hemustbeexercisedalsoinmanykindsofknowledge，toseewhetherthesoulwillbeabletoendurethehighestofall，willfaintunderthem，asinanyotherstudiesandexercises。 Yes，hesaid，youarequiterightintestinghim。Butwhatdoyoumeanbythehighestofallknowledge？ Youmayremember，Isaid，thatwedividedthesoulintothreeparts； anddistinguishedtheseveralnaturesofjustice，temperance，courage，andwisdom？ Indeed，hesaid，ifIhadforgotten，Ishouldnotdeservetohearmore。 Anddoyourememberthewordofcautionwhichprecededthediscussionofthem？ Towhatdoyourefer？ Weweresaying，ifIamnotmistaken，thathewhowantedtoseethemintheirperfectbeautymusttakealongerandmorecircuitousway，attheendofwhichtheywouldappear；butthatwecouldaddonapopularexpositionofthemonalevelwiththediscussionwhichhadpreceded。Andyourepliedthatsuchanexpositionwouldbeenoughforyou，andsotheenquirywascontinuedinwhattomeseemedtobeaveryinaccuratemanner；whetheryouweresatisfiedornot，itisforyoutosay。 Yes，hesaid，Ithoughtandtheothersthoughtthatyougaveusafairmeasureoftruth。 But，myfriend，Isaid，ameasureofsuchthingsWhichinanydegreefallsshortofthewholetruthisnotfairmeasure；fornothingimperfectisthemeasureofanything，althoughpersonsaretooapttobecontentedandthinkthattheyneedsearchnofurther。 Notanuncommoncasewhenpeopleareindolent。 Yes，Isaid；andtherecannotbeanyworsefaultinaguardianoftheStateandofthelaws。 True。 Theguardianthen，Isaid，mustberequiredtotakethelongercircuit，andtollatlearningaswellasatgymnastics，orhewillneverreachthehighestknowledgeofallwhich，aswewerejustnowsaying，ishispropercalling。 What，hesaid，isthereaknowledgestillhigherthanthis——higherthanjusticeandtheothervirtues？ Yes，Isaid，thereis。Andofthevirtuestoowemustbeholdnottheoutlinemerely，asatpresent——nothingshortofthemostfinishedpictureshouldsatisfyus。Whenlittlethingsareelaboratedwithaninfinityofpains，inorderthattheymayappearintheirfullbeautyandutmostclearness，howridiculousthatweshouldnotthinkthehighesttruthsworthyofattainingthehighestaccuracy！ Arightnoblethought；butdoyousupposethatweshallrefrainfromaskingyouwhatisthishighestknowledge？ Nay，Isaid，askifyouwill；butIamcertainthatyouhaveheardtheanswermanytimes，andnowyoueitherdonotunderstandmeor，asIratherthink，youaredisposedtobetroublesome；foryouhaveofbeentoldthattheideaofgoodisthehighestknowledge，andthatallotherthingsbecomeusefulandadvantageousonlybytheiruseofthis。 YoucanhardlybeignorantthatofthisIwasabouttospeak，concerningwhich，asyouhaveoftenheardmesay，weknowsolittle； and，withoutwhich，anyotherknowledgeorpossessionofanykindwillprofitusnothing。Doyouthinkthatthepossessionofallotherthingsisofanyvalueifwedonotpossessthegood？ortheknowledgeofallotherthingsifwehavenoknowledgeofbeautyandgoodness？ Assuredlynot。 Youarefurtherawarethatmostpeopleaffirmpleasuretobethegood，butthefinersortofwitssayitisknowledgeYes。 Andyouareawaretoothatthelattercannotexplainwhattheymeanbyknowledge，butareobligedafteralltosayknowledgeofthegood？ Howridiculous！ Yes，Isaid，thattheyshouldbeginbyreproachinguswithourignoranceofthegood，andthenpresumeourknowledgeofit——forthegoodtheydefinetobeknowledgeofthegood，justasifweunderstoodthemwhentheyusetheterm’good’——thisisofcourseridiculous。 Mosttrue，hesaid。 Andthosewhomakepleasuretheirgoodareinequalperplexity； fortheyarecompelledtoadmitthattherearebadpleasuresaswellasgood。 Certainly。 Andthereforetoacknowledgethatbadandgoodarethesame？ True。 Therecanbenodoubtaboutthenumerousdifficultiesinwhichthisquestionisinvolved。 Therecanbenone。 Further，dowenotseethatmanyarewillingtodoortohaveortoseemtobewhatisjustandhonourablewithoutthereality；butnooneissatisfiedwiththeappearanceofgood——therealityiswhattheyseek；inthecaseofthegood，appearanceisdespisedbyeveryone。 Verytrue，hesaid。 Ofthisthen，whicheverysoulofmanpursuesandmakestheendofallhisactions，havingapresentimentthatthereissuchanend，andyethesitatingbecauseneitherknowingthenaturenorhavingthesameassuranceofthisasofotherthings，andthereforelosingwhatevergoodthereisinotherthings，——ofaprinciplesuchandsogreatasthisoughtthebestmeninourState，towhomeverythingisentrusted，tobeinthedarknessofignorance？ Certainlynot，hesaid。 Iamsure，Isaid，thathewhodoesnotknownowthebeautifulandthejustarelikewisegoodwillbebutasorryguardianofthem；andI suspectthatnoonewhoisignorantofthegoodwillhaveatrueknowledgeofthem。 That，hesaid，isashrewdsuspicionofyours。 AndifweonlyhaveaguardianwhohasthisknowledgeourStatewillbeperfectlyordered？ Ofcourse，hereplied；butIwishthatyouwouldtellmewhetheryouconceivethissupremeprincipleofthegoodtobeknowledgeorpleasure，ordifferentfromeither。 Aye，Isaid，Iknewallalongthatafastidiousgentlemanlikeyouwouldnotbecontentedwiththethoughtsofotherpeopleaboutthesematters。 True，Socrates；butImustsaythatonewholikeyouhaspassedalifetimeinthestudyofphilosophyshouldnotbealwaysrepeatingtheopinionsofothers，andnevertellinghisown。 Well，buthasanyonearighttosaypositivelywhathedoesnotknow？ Not，hesaid，withtheassuranceofpositivecertainty；hehasnorighttodothat：buthemaysaywhathethinks，asamatterofopinion。 Anddoyounotknow，Isaid，thatallmereopinionsarebad，andthebestofthemblind？Youwouldnotdenythatthosewhohaveanytruenotionwithoutintelligenceareonlylikeblindmenwhofeeltheirwayalongtheroad？ Verytrue。 Anddoyouwishtobeholdwhatisblindandcrookedandbase，whenotherswilltellyouofbrightnessandbeauty？ GLAUCON—SOCRATES Still，Imustimploreyou，Socrates，saidGlaucon，nottoturnawayjustasyouarereachingthegoal；ifyouwillonlygivesuchanexplanationofthegoodasyouhavealreadygivenofjusticeandtemperanceandtheothervirtues，weshallbesatisfied。 Yes，myfriend，andIshallbeatleastequallysatisfied，butI cannothelpfearingthatIshallfall，andthatmyindiscreetzealwillbringridiculeuponme。No，sweetsirs，letusnotatpresentaskwhatistheactualnatureofthegood，fortoreachwhatisnowinmythoughtswouldbeanefforttoogreatforme。Butofthechildofthegoodwhoislikesthim，Iwouldfainspeak，ifIcouldbesurethatyouwishedtohear——otherwise，not。 Byallmeans，hesaid，tellusaboutthechild，andyoushallremaininourdebtfortheaccountoftheparent。 Idoindeedwish，Ireplied，thatIcouldpay，andyoureceive，theaccountoftheparent，andnot，asnow，oftheoffspringonly； take，however，thislatterbywayofinterest，andatthesametimehaveacarethatidonotrenderafalseaccount，althoughIhavenointentionofdeceivingyou。 Yes，wewilltakeallthecarethatwecan：proceed。 Yes，Isaid，butImustfirstcometoanunderstandingwithyou，andremindyouofwhatIhavementionedinthecourseofthisdiscussion，andatmanyothertimes。 What？ Theoldstory，thatthereisamanybeautifulandamanygood，andsoofotherthingswhichwedescribeanddefine；toallofthem’many’ isapplied。 True，hesaid。 Andthereisanabsolutebeautyandanabsolutegood，andofotherthingstowhichtheterm’many’isappliedthereisanabsolute；fortheymaybebroughtunderasingleidea，whichiscalledtheessenceofeach。 Verytrue。 Themany，aswesay，areseenbutnotknown，andtheideasareknownbutnotseen。 Exactly。 Andwhatistheorganwithwhichweseethevisiblethings？ Thesight，hesaid。 Andwiththehearing，Isaid，wehear，andwiththeothersensesperceivetheotherobjectsofsense？ True。 Buthaveyouremarkedthatsightisbyfarthemostcostlyandcomplexpieceofworkmanshipwhichtheartificerofthesensesevercontrived？ No，Ineverhave，hesaid。 Thenreflect；hastheearorvoiceneedofanythirdoradditionalnatureinorderthattheonemaybeabletohearandtheothertobeheard？ Nothingofthesort。 No，indeed，Ireplied；andthesameistrueofmost，ifnotall，theothersenses——youwouldnotsaythatanyofthemrequiressuchanaddition？ Certainlynot。 Butyouseethatwithouttheadditionofsomeothernaturethereisnoseeingorbeingseen？ Howdoyoumean？ Sightbeing，asIconceive，intheeyes，andhewhohaseyeswantingtosee；colourbeingalsopresentinthem，stillunlesstherebeathirdnaturespeciallyadaptedtothepurpose，theowneroftheeyeswillseenothingandthecolourswillbeinvisible。 Ofwhatnatureareyouspeaking？ Ofthatwhichyoutermlight，Ireplied。 True，hesaid。 Noble，then，isthebondwhichlinkstogethersightandvisibility，andgreatbeyondotherbondsbynosmalldifferenceofnature；forlightistheirbond，andlightisnoignoblething？ Nay，hesaid，thereverseofignoble。 Andwhich，Isaid，ofthegodsinheavenwouldyousaywasthelordofthiselement？Whoseisthatlightwhichmakestheeyetoseeperfectlyandthevisibletoappear？ Youmeanthesun，asyouandallmankindsay。 Maynottherelationofsighttothisdeitybedescribedasfollows？ How？ Neithersightnortheeyeinwhichsightresidesisthesun？ No。 Yetofalltheorgansofsensetheeyeisthemostlikethesun？ Byfarthemostlike。 Andthepowerwhichtheeyepossessesisasortofeffluencewhichisdispensedfromthesun？ Exactly。 Thenthesunisnotsight，buttheauthorofsightwhoisrecognisedbysight。 True，hesaid。 AndthisishewhomIcallthechildofthegood，whomthegoodbegatinhisownlikeness，tobeinthevisibleworld，inrelationtosightandthethingsofsight，whatthegoodisintheintellectualworldinrelationtomindandthethingsofmind。 Willyoubealittlemoreexplicit？hesaid。 Why，youknow，Isaid，thattheeyes，whenapersondirectsthemtowardsobjectsonwhichthelightofdayisnolongershining，butthemoonandstarsonly，seedimly，andarenearlyblind；theyseemtohavenoclearnessofvisioninthem？ Verytrue。 Butwhentheyaredirectedtowardsobjectsonwhichthesunshines，theyseeclearlyandthereissightinthem？ Certainly。 Andthesoulisliketheeye：whenrestinguponthatonwhichtruthandbeingshine，thesoulperceivesandunderstandsandisradiantwithintelligence；butwhenturnedtowardsthetwilightofbecomingandperishing，thenshehasopiniononly，andgoesblinkingabout，andisfirstofoneopinionandthenofanother，andseemstohavenointelligence？ Justso。 Now，thatwhichimpartstruthtotheknownandthepowerofknowingtotheknoweriswhatIwouldhaveyoutermtheideaofgood，andthisyouwilldeemtobethecauseofscience，andoftruthinsofarasthelatterbecomesthesubjectofknowledge； beautifultoo，asarebothtruthandknowledge，youwillberightinesteemingthisothernatureasmorebeautifulthaneither；and，asinthepreviousinstance，lightandsightmaybetrulysaidtobelikethesun，andyetnottobethesun，sointhisothersphere，scienceandtruthmaybedeemedtobelikethegood，butnotthegood；thegoodhasaplaceofhonouryethigher。 Whatawonderofbeautythatmustbe，hesaid，whichistheauthorofscienceandtruth，andyetsurpassestheminbeauty；foryousurelycannotmeantosaythatpleasureisthegood？ Godforbid，Ireplied；butmayIaskyoutoconsidertheimageinanotherpointofview？ Inwhatpointofview？ Youwouldsay，wouldyounot，thatthesunisonlytheauthorofvisibilityinallvisiblethings，butofgenerationandnourishmentandgrowth，thoughhehimselfisnotgeneration？ Certainly。 Inlikemannerthegoodmaybesaidtobenotonlytheauthorofknowledgetoallthingsknown，butoftheirbeingandessence，andyetthegoodisnotessence，butfarexceedsessenceindignityandpower。 Glauconsaid，withaludicrousearnestness：Bythelightofheaven，howamazing！ Yes，Isaid，andtheexaggerationmaybesetdowntoyou；foryoumademeuttermyfancies。 Andpraycontinuetoutterthem；atanyrateletushearifthereisanythingmoretobesaidaboutthesimilitudeofthesun。 Yes，Isaid，thereisagreatdealmore。 Thenomitnothing，howeverslight。 Iwilldomybest，Isaid；butIshouldthinkthatagreatdealwillhavetobeomitted。 Youhavetoimagine，then，thattherearetworulingpowers，andthatoneofthemissetovertheintellectualworld，theotheroverthevisible。Idonotsayheaven，lestyoushouldfancythatIamplayinguponthename（’ourhanoz，orhatoz’）。MayIsupposethatyouhavethisdistinctionofthevisibleandintelligiblefixedinyourmind？ Ihave。 Nowtakealinewhichhasbeencutintotwounequalparts，anddivideeachofthemagaininthesameproportion，andsupposethetwomaindivisionstoanswer，onetothevisibleandtheothertotheintelligible，andthencomparethesubdivisionsinrespectoftheirclearnessandwantofclearness，andyouwillfindthatthefirstsectioninthesphereofthevisibleconsistsofimages。AndbyimagesImean，inthefirstplace，shadows，andinthesecondplace，reflectionsinwaterandinsolid，smoothandpolishedbodiesandthelike：Doyouunderstand？ Yes，Iunderstand。 Imagine，now，theothersection，ofwhichthisisonlytheresemblance，toincludetheanimalswhichwesee，andeverythingthatgrowsorismade。 Verygood。 Wouldyounotadmitthatboththesectionsofthisdivisionhavedifferentdegreesoftruth，andthatthecopyistotheoriginalasthesphereofopinionistothesphereofknowledge？ Mostundoubtedly。 Nextproceedtoconsiderthemannerinwhichthesphereoftheintellectualistobedivided。 Inwhatmanner？ Thus：——Therearetwosubdivisions，inthelowerorwhichthesoulusesthefiguresgivenbytheformerdivisionasimages；theenquirycanonlybehypothetical，andinsteadofgoingupwardstoaprincipledescendstotheotherend；inthehigherofthetwo，thesoulpassesoutofhypotheses，andgoesuptoaprinciplewhichisabovehypotheses，makingnouseofimagesasintheformercase，butproceedingonlyinandthroughtheideasthemselves。 Idonotquiteunderstandyourmeaning，hesaid。 ThenIwilltryagain；youwillunderstandmebetterwhenIhavemadesomepreliminaryremarks。Youareawarethatstudentsofgeometry，arithmetic，andthekindredsciencesassumetheoddandtheevenandthefiguresandthreekindsofanglesandthelikeintheirseveralbranchesofscience；thesearetheirhypotheses，whichtheyandeverybodyaresupposedtoknow，andthereforetheydonotdeigntogiveanyaccountofthemeithertothemselvesorothers； buttheybeginwiththem，andgoonuntiltheyarriveatlast，andinaconsistentmanner，attheirconclusion？ Yes，hesaid，Iknow。