第13章

WouldthatIcould！butyoushouldregardmeratherasafollowerwhohasjusteyesenoughto，seewhatyoushowhim——thatisaboutasmuchasIamgoodfor。 Offerupaprayerwithmeandfollow。 Iwill，butyoumustshowmetheway。 Hereisnopath，Isaid，andthewoodisdarkandperplexing； stillwemustpushon。 Letuspushon。 HereIsawsomething：Halloo！Isaid，Ibegintoperceiveatrack，andIbelievethatthequarrywillnotescape。 Goodnews，hesaid。 Truly，Isaid，wearestupidfellows。 Whyso？ Why，mygoodsir，atthebeginningofourenquiry，agesago，therewasjusticetumblingoutatourfeet，andweneversawher；nothingcouldbemoreridiculous。Likepeoplewhogoaboutlookingforwhattheyhaveintheirhands——thatwasthewaywithus——welookednotatwhatwewereseeking，butatwhatwasfaroffinthedistance；andtherefore，Isuppose，wemissedher。 Whatdoyoumean？ Imeantosaythatinrealityforalongtimepastwehavebeentalkingofjustice，andhavefailedtorecogniseher。 Igrowimpatientatthelengthofyourexordium。 Wellthen，tellme，Isaid，whetherIamrightornot：YouremembertheoriginalprinciplewhichwewerealwayslayingdownatthefoundationoftheState，thatonemanshouldpractiseonethingonly，thethingtowhichhisnaturewasbestadapted；——nowjusticeisthisprincipleorapartofit。 Yes，weoftensaidthatonemanshoulddoonethingonly。 Further，weaffirmedthatjusticewasdoingone’sownbusiness，andnotbeingabusybody；wesaidsoagainandagain，andmanyothershavesaidthesametous。 Yes，wesaidso。 Thentodoone’sownbusinessinacertainwaymaybeassumedtobejustice。CanyoutellmewhenceIderivethisinference？ Icannot，butIshouldliketobetold。 BecauseIthinkthatthisistheonlyvirtuewhichremainsintheStatewhentheothervirtuesoftemperanceandcourageandwisdomareabstracted；and，thatthisistheultimatecauseandconditionoftheexistenceofallofthem，andwhileremaininginthemisalsotheirpreservative；andweweresayingthatifthethreewerediscoveredbyus，justicewouldbethefourthorremainingone。 Thatfollowsofnecessity。 IfweareaskedtodeterminewhichofthesefourqualitiesbyitspresencecontributesmosttotheexcellenceoftheState，whethertheagreementofrulersandsubjects，orthepreservationinthesoldiersoftheopinionwhichthelawordainsaboutthetruenatureofdangers，orwisdomandwatchfulnessintherulers，orwhetherthisotherwhichIammentioning，andwhichisfoundinchildrenandwomen，slaveandfreeman，artisan，ruler，subject，——thequality，Imean，ofeveryonedoinghisownwork，andnotbeingabusybody，wouldclaimthepalm——thequestionisnotsoeasilyanswered。 Certainly，hereplied，therewouldbeadifficultyinsayingwhich。 ThenthepowerofeachindividualintheStatetodohisownworkappearstocompetewiththeotherpoliticalvirtues，wisdom，temperance，courage。 Yes，hesaid。 Andthevirtuewhichentersintothiscompetitionisjustice？ Exactly。 Letuslookatthequestionfromanotherpointofview：ArenottherulersinaStatethosetowhomyouwouldentrusttheofficeofdeterminingsuitsatlaw？ Certainly。 Andaresuitsdecidedonanyothergroundbutthatamanmayneithertakewhatisanother’s，norbedeprivedofwhatishisown？ Yes；thatistheirprinciple。 Whichisajustprinciple？ Yes。 Thenonthisviewalsojusticewillbeadmittedtobethehavinganddoingwhatisaman’sown，andbelongstohim？ Verytrue。 Think，now，andsaywhetheryouagreewithmeornot。Supposeacarpentertobedoingthebusinessofacobbler，oracobblerofacarpenter；andsupposethemtoexchangetheirimplementsortheirduties，orthesamepersontobedoingtheworkofboth，orwhateverbethechange；doyouthinkthatanygreatharmwouldresulttotheState？ Notmuch。 Butwhenthecobbleroranyothermanwhomnaturedesignedtobeatrader，havinghisheartliftedupbywealthorstrengthorthenumberofhisfollowers，oranylikeadvantage，attemptstoforcehiswayintotheclassofwarriors，orawarriorintothatoflegislatorsandguardians，forwhichheisunfitted，andeithertotaketheimplementsorthedutiesoftheother；orwhenonemanistrader，legislator，andwarriorallinone，thenIthinkyouwillagreewithmeinsayingthatthisinterchangeandthismeddlingofonewithanotheristheruinoftheState。 Mosttrue。 Seeingthen，Isaid，thattherearethreedistinctclasses，anymeddlingofonewithanother，orthechangeofoneintoanother，isthegreatestharmtotheState，andmaybemostjustlytermedevil—doing？ Precisely。 Andthegreatestdegreeofevil—doingtoone’sowncitywouldbetermedbyyouinjustice？ Certainly。 Thisthenisinjustice；andontheotherhandwhenthetrader，theauxiliary，andtheguardianeachdotheirownbusiness，thatisjustice，andwillmakethecityjust。 Iagreewithyou。 Wewillnot，Isaid，beover—positiveasyet；butif，ontrial，thisconceptionofjusticebeverifiedintheindividualaswellasintheState，therewillbenolongeranyroomfordoubt；ifitbenotverified，wemusthaveafreshenquiry。Firstletuscompletetheoldinvestigation，whichwebegan，asyouremember，undertheimpressionthat，ifwecouldpreviouslyexaminejusticeonthelargerscale，therewouldbelessdifficultyindiscerningherintheindividual。ThatlargerexampleappearedtobetheState，andaccordinglyweconstructedasgoodaoneaswecould，knowingwellthatinthegoodStatejusticewouldbefound。Letthediscoverywhichwemadebenowappliedtotheindividual——iftheyagree，weshallbesatisfied；or，iftherebeadifferenceintheindividual，wewillcomebacktotheStateandhaveanothertrialofthetheory。 Thefrictionofthetwowhenrubbedtogethermaypossiblystrikealightinwhichjusticewillshineforth，andthevisionwhichisthenrevealedwewillfixinoursouls。 Thatwillbeinregularcourse；letusdoasyousay。 Iproceededtoask：Whentwothings，agreaterandless，arecalledbythesamename，aretheylikeorunlikeinsofarastheyarecalledthesame？ Like，hereplied。 Thejustmanthen，ifweregardtheideaofjusticeonly，willbelikethejustState？ Hewill。 AndaStatewasthoughtbyustobejustwhenthethreeclassesintheStateseverallydidtheirownbusiness；andalsothoughttobetemperateandvaliantandwisebyreasonofcertainotheraffectionsandqualitiesofthesesameclasses？ True，hesaid。 Andsooftheindividual；wemayassumethathehasthesamethreeprinciplesinhisownsoulwhicharefoundintheState；andhemayberightlydescribedinthesameterms，becauseheisaffectedinthesamemanner？ Certainly，hesaid。 Oncemorethen，Omyfriend，wehavealighteduponaneasyquestion——whetherthesoulhasthesethreeprinciplesornot？ Aneasyquestion！Nay，rather，Socrates，theproverbholdsthathardisthegood。 Verytrue，Isaid；andIdonotthinkthatthemethodwhichweareemployingisatalladequatetotheaccuratesolutionofthisquestion；thetruemethodisanotherandalongerone。Stillwemayarriveatasolutionnotbelowthelevelofthepreviousenquiry。 Maywenotbesatisfiedwiththat？hesaid；——underthecircumstances，Iamquitecontent。 Itoo，Ireplied，shallbeextremelywellsatisfied。 Thenfaintnotinpursuingthespeculation，hesaid。 Mustwenotacknowledge，Isaid，thatineachofustherearethesameprinciplesandhabitswhichthereareintheState；andthatfromtheindividualtheypassintotheState？——howelsecantheycomethere？Takethequalityofpassionorspirit；——itwouldberidiculoustoimaginethatthisquality，whenfoundinStates，isnotderivedfromtheindividualswhoaresupposedtopossessit，e。g。theThracians，Scythians，andingeneralthenorthernnations；andthesamemaybesaidoftheloveofknowledge，whichisthespecialcharacteristicofourpartoftheworld，oroftheloveofmoney，whichmay，withequaltruth，beattributedtothePhoeniciansandEgyptians。 Exactlyso，hesaid。 Thereisnodifficultyinunderstandingthis。 Nonewhatever。 Butthequestionisnotquitesoeasywhenweproceedtoaskwhethertheseprinciplesarethreeorone；whether，thatistosay，welearnwithonepartofournature，areangrywithanother，andwithathirdpartdesirethesatisfactionofournaturalappetites；orwhetherthewholesoulcomesintoplayineachsortofaction——todeterminethatisthedifficulty。 Yes，hesaid；thereliesthedifficulty。 Thenletusnowtryanddeterminewhethertheyarethesameordifferent。 Howcanwe？heasked。 Irepliedasfollows：Thesamethingclearlycannotactorbeacteduponinthesamepartorinrelationtothesamethingatthesametime，incontraryways；andthereforewheneverthiscontradictionoccursinthingsapparentlythesame，weknowthattheyarereallynotthesame，butdifferent。 Good。 Forexample，Isaid，canthesamethingbeatrestandinmotionatthesametimeinthesamepart？ Impossible。 Still，Isaid，letushaveamoreprecisestatementofterms，lestweshouldhereafterfalloutbytheway。Imaginethecaseofamanwhoisstandingandalsomovinghishandsandhishead，andsupposeapersontosaythatoneandthesamepersonisinmotionandatrestatthesamemoment—tosuchamodeofspeechweshouldobject，andshouldrathersaythatonepartofhimisinmotionwhileanotherisatrest。 Verytrue。 Andsupposetheobjectortorefinestillfurther，andtodrawthenicedistinctionthatnotonlypartsoftops，butwholetops，whentheyspinroundwiththeirpegsfixedonthespot，areatrestandinmotionatthesametime（andhemaysaythesameofanythingwhichrevolvesinthesamespot），hisobjectionwouldnotbeadmittedbyus，becauseinsuchcasesthingsarenotatrestandinmotioninthesamepartsofthemselves；weshouldrathersaythattheyhavebothanaxisandacircumference，andthattheaxisstandsstill，forthereisnodeviationfromtheperpendicular；andthatthecircumferencegoesround。Butif，whilerevolving，theaxisinclineseithertotherightorleft，forwardsorbackwards，theninnopointofviewcantheybeatrest。 Thatisthecorrectmodeofdescribingthem，hereplied。 Thennoneoftheseobjectionswillconfuseus，orinclineustobelievethatthesamethingatthesametime，inthesamepartorinrelationtothesamething，canactorbeacteduponincontraryways。 Certainlynot，accordingtomywayofthinking。 Yet，Isaid，thatwemaynotbecompelledtoexamineallsuchobjections，andproveatlengththattheyareuntrue，letusassumetheirabsurdity，andgoforwardontheunderstandingthathereafter，ifthisassumptionturnouttobeuntrue，alltheconsequenceswhichfollowshallbewithdrawn。 Yes，hesaid，thatwillbethebestway。 Well，Isaid，wouldyounotallowthatassentanddissent，desireandaversion，attractionandrepulsion，areallofthemopposites，whethertheyareregardedasactiveorpassive（forthatmakesnodifferenceinthefactoftheiropposition）？ Yes，hesaid，theyareopposites。 Well，Isaid，andhungerandthirst，andthedesiresingeneral，andagainwillingandwishing，——alltheseyouwouldrefertotheclassesalreadymentioned。Youwouldsay——wouldyounot？——thatthesoulofhimwhodesiresisseekingaftertheobjectofhisdesires；orthatheisdrawingtohimselfthethingwhichhewishestopossess：oragain，whenapersonwantsanythingtobegivenhim，hismind，longingfortherealisationofhisdesires，intimateshiswishtohaveitbyanodofassent，asifhehadbeenaskedaquestion？ Verytrue。 Andwhatwouldyousayofunwillingnessanddislikeandtheabsenceofdesire；shouldnotthesebereferredtotheoppositeclassofrepulsionandrejection？ Certainly。 Admittingthistobetrueofdesiregenerally，letussupposeaparticularclassofdesires，andoutofthesewewillselecthungerandthirst，astheyaretermed，whicharethemostobviousofthem？ Letustakethatclass，hesaid。 Theobjectofoneisfood，andoftheotherdrink？ Yes。 Andherecomesthepoint：isnotthirstthedesirewhichthesoulhasofdrink，andofdrinkonly；notofdrinkqualifiedbyanythingelse；forexample，warmorcold，ormuchorlittle，or，inaword，drinkofanyparticularsort：butifthethirstbeaccompaniedbyheat，thenthedesireisofcolddrink；or，ifaccompaniedbycold，thenofwarmdrink；or，ifthethirstbeexcessive，thenthedrinkwhichisdesiredwillbeexcessive；or，ifnotgreat，thequantityofdrinkwillalsobesmall：butthirstpureandsimplewilldesiredrinkpureandsimple，whichisthenaturalsatisfactionofthirst，asfoodisofhunger？ Yes，hesaid；thesimpledesireis，asyousay，ineverycaseofthesimpleobject，andthequalifieddesireofthequalifiedobject。 Buthereaconfusionmayarise；andIshouldwishtoguardagainstanopponentstartingupandsayingthatnomandesiresdrinkonly，butgooddrink，orfoodonly，butgoodfood；forgoodistheuniversalobjectofdesire，andthirstbeingadesire，willnecessarilybethirstaftergooddrink；andthesameistrueofeveryotherdesire。 Yes，hereplied，theopponentmighthavesomethingtosay。 NeverthelessIshouldstillmaintain，thatofrelativessomehaveaqualityattachedtoeithertermoftherelation；othersaresimpleandhavetheircorrelativessimple。 Idonotknowwhatyoumean。 Well，youknowofcoursethatthegreaterisrelativetotheless？ Certainly。 Andthemuchgreatertothemuchless？ Yes。 Andthesometimegreatertothesometimeless，andthegreaterthatistobetothelessthatistobe？ Certainly，hesaid。 Andsoofmoreandless，andofothercorrelativeterms，suchasthedoubleandthehalf，oragain，theheavierandthelighter，theswifterandtheslower；andofhotandcold，andofanyotherrelatives；——isnotthistrueofallofthem？ Yes。 Anddoesnotthesameprincipleholdinthesciences？Theobjectofscienceisknowledge（assumingthattobethetruedefinition），buttheobjectofaparticularscienceisaparticularkindofknowledge；Imean，forexample，thatthescienceofhouse—buildingisakindofknowledgewhichisdefinedanddistinguishedfromotherkindsandisthereforetermedarchitecture。 Certainly。 Becauseithasaparticularqualitywhichnootherhas？ Yes。 Andithasthisparticularqualitybecauseithasanobjectofaparticularkind；andthisistrueoftheotherartsandsciences？ Yes。 Now，then，ifIhavemademyselfclear，youwillunderstandmyoriginalmeaninginwhatIsaidaboutrelatives。Mymeaningwas，thatifonetermofarelationistakenalone，theotheristakenalone；ifonetermisqualified，theotherisalsoqualified。Idonotmeantosaythatrelativesmaynotbedisparate，orthatthescienceofhealthishealthy，orofdiseasenecessarilydiseased，orthatthesciencesofgoodandevilarethereforegoodandevil；butonlythat，whenthetermscienceisnolongerusedabsolutely，buthasaqualifiedobjectwhichinthiscaseisthenatureofhealthanddisease，itbecomesdefined，andishencecallednotmerelyscience，butthescienceofmedicine。 Iquiteunderstand，andIthinkasyoudo。 Wouldyounotsaythatthirstisoneoftheseessentiallyrelativeterms，havingclearlyarelation—— Yes，thirstisrelativetodrink。 Andacertainkindofthirstisrelativetoacertainkindofdrink； butthirsttakenaloneisneitherofmuchnorlittle，norofgoodnorbad，norofanyparticularkindofdrink，butofdrinkonly？ Certainly。 Thenthesoulofthethirstyone，insofarasheisthirsty，desiresonlydrink；forthisheyearnsandtriestoobtainit？ Thatisplain。 Andifyousupposesomethingwhichpullsathirstysoulawayfromdrink，thatmustbedifferentfromthethirstyprinciplewhichdrawshimlikeabeasttodrink；for，asweweresaying，thesamethingcannotatthesametimewiththesamepartofitselfactincontrarywaysaboutthesame。 Impossible。 Nomorethanyoucansaythatthehandsofthearcherpushandpullthebowatthesametime，butwhatyousayisthatonehandpushesandtheotherpulls。 Exactlyso，hereplied。 Andmightamanbethirsty，andyetunwillingtodrink？ Yes，hesaid，itconstantlyhappens。 Andinsuchacasewhatisonetosay？Wouldyounotsaythattherewassomethinginthesoulbiddingamantodrink，andsomethingelseforbiddinghim，whichisotherandstrongerthantheprinciplewhichbidshim？ Ishouldsayso。 Andtheforbiddingprincipleisderivedfromreason，andthatwhichbidsandattractsproceedsfrompassionanddisease？ Clearly。 Thenwemayfairlyassumethattheyaretwo，andthattheydifferfromoneanother；theonewithwhichmanreasons，wemaycalltherationalprincipleofthesoul，theother，withwhichhelovesandhungersandthirstsandfeelstheflutteringsofanyotherdesire，maybetermedtheirrationalorappetitive，theallyofsundrypleasuresandsatisfactions？ Yes，hesaid，wemayfairlyassumethemtobedifferent。 Thenletusfinallydeterminethattherearetwoprinciplesexistinginthesoul。Andwhatofpassion，orspirit？Isitathird，orakintooneofthepreceding？ Ishouldbeinclinedtosay——akintodesire。 Well，Isaid，thereisastorywhichIremembertohaveheard，andinwhichIputfaith。Thestoryis，thatLeontius，thesonofAglaion，cominguponedayfromthePiraeus，underthenorthwallontheoutside，observedsomedeadbodieslyingonthegroundattheplaceofexecution。Hefeltadesiretoseethem，andalsoadreadandabhorrenceofthem；foratimehestruggledandcoveredhiseyes，butatlengththedesiregotthebetterofhim；andforcingthemopen，heranuptothedeadbodies，saying，Look，yewretches，takeyourfillofthefairsight。 Ihaveheardthestorymyself，hesaid。 Themoralofthetaleis，thatangerattimesgoestowarwithdesire，asthoughtheyweretwodistinctthings。 Yes；thatisthemeaning，hesaid。 Andaretherenotmanyothercasesinwhichweobservethatwhenaman’sdesiresviolentlyprevailoverhisreason，herevileshimself，andisangryattheviolencewithinhim，andthatinthisstruggle，whichislikethestruggleoffactionsinaState，hisspiritisonthesideofhisreason；——butforthepassionateorspiritedelementtotakepartwiththedesireswhenreasonthatsheshouldnotbeopposed，isasortofthingwhichthingwhichIbelievethatyouneverobservedoccurringinyourself，nor，asIshouldimagine，inanyoneelse？ Certainlynot。 Supposethatamanthinkshehasdoneawrongtoanother，thenoblerheisthelessableishetofeelindignantatanysuffering，suchashunger，orcold，oranyotherpainwhichtheinjuredpersonmayinflictuponhim——thesehedeemstobejust，and，asIsay，hisangerrefusestobeexcitedbythem。 True，hesaid。 Butwhenhethinksthatheisthesuffererofthewrong，thenheboilsandchafes，andisonthesideofwhathebelievestobejustice；andbecausehesuffershungerorcoldorotherpainheisonlythemoredeterminedtopersevereandconquer。Hisnoblespiritwillnotbequelleduntilheeitherslaysorisslain；oruntilhehearsthevoiceoftheshepherd，thatis，reason，biddinghisdogbarknomore。 Theillustrationisperfect，hereplied；andinourState，asweweresaying，theauxiliariesweretobedogs，andtohearthevoiceoftherulers，whoaretheirshepherds。 Iperceive，Isaid，thatyouquiteunderstandme；thereis，however，afurtherpointwhichIwishyoutoconsider。 Whatpoint？ Yourememberthatpassionorspiritappearedatfirstsighttobeakindofdesire，butnowweshouldsayquitethecontrary；forintheconflictofthesoulspiritisarrayedonthesideoftherationalprinciple。 Mostassuredly。 Butafurtherquestionarises：Ispassiondifferentfromreasonalso，oronlyakindofreason；inwhichlattercase，insteadofthreeprinciplesinthesoul，therewillonlybetwo，therationalandtheconcupiscent；orrather，astheStatewascomposedofthreeclasses，traders，auxiliaries，counsellors，somaytherenotbeintheindividualsoulathirdelementwhichispassionorspirit，andwhennotcorruptedbybadeducationisthenaturalauxiliaryofreasonYes，hesaid，theremustbeathird。 Yes，Ireplied，ifpassion，whichhasalreadybeenshowntobedifferentfromdesire，turnoutalsotobedifferentfromreason。 Butthatiseasilyproved：——Wemayobserveeveninyoungchildrenthattheyarefullofspiritalmostassoonastheyareborn，whereassomeofthemneverseemtoattaintotheuseofreason，andmostofthemlateenough。 Excellent，Isaid，andyoumayseepassionequallyinbruteanimals，whichisafurtherproofofthetruthofwhatyouaresaying。AndwemayoncemoreappealtothewordsofHomer，whichhavebeenalreadyquotedbyus，Hesmotehisbreast，andthusrebukedhissoul，forinthisverseHomerhasclearlysupposedthepowerwhichreasonsaboutthebetterandworsetobedifferentfromtheunreasoningangerwhichisrebukedbyit。 Verytrue，hesaid。