第7章

Andthereisanotherclassofservants，whoareintellectuallyhardlyonthelevelofcompanionship；stilltheyhaveplentyofbodilystrengthforlabour，whichaccordinglytheysell，andarecalled，ifI donotmistake，hirelings，hirebeingthenamewhichisgiventothepriceoftheirlabour。 True。 Thenhirelingswillhelptomakeupourpopulation？ Yes。 Andnow，Adeimantus，isourStatematuredandperfected？ Ithinkso。 Where，then，isjustice，andwhereisinjustice，andinwhatpartoftheStatedidtheyspringup？ Probablyinthedealingsofthesecitizenswithoneanother。 cannotimaginethattheyaremorelikelytobefoundanywhereelse。 Idaresaythatyouarerightinyoursuggestion，Isaid；wehadbetterthinkthematterout，andnotshrinkfromtheenquiry。 Letusthenconsider，firstofall，whatwillbetheirwayoflife，nowthatwehavethusestablishedthem。Willtheynotproducecorn，andwine，andclothes，andshoes，andbuildhousesforthemselves？Andwhentheyarehoused，theywillwork，insummer，commonly，strippedandbarefoot，butinwintersubstantiallyclothedandshod。Theywillfeedonbarley—mealandflourofwheat，bakingandkneadingthem，makingnoblecakesandloaves；thesetheywillserveuponamatofreedsoroncleanleaves，themselvesrecliningthewhileuponbedsstrewnwithyewormyrtle。Andtheyandtheirchildrenwillfeast，drinkingofthewinewhichtheyhavemade，wearinggarlandsontheirheads，andhymningthepraisesofthegods，inhappyconversewithoneanother。Andtheywilltakecarethattheirfamiliesdonotexceedtheirmeans；havinganeyetopovertyorwar。 SOCRATES—GLAUCON But，saidGlaucon，interposing，youhavenotgiventhemarelishtotheirmeal。 True，Ireplied，Ihadforgotten；ofcoursetheymusthavearelish—salt，andolives，andcheese，andtheywillboilrootsandherbssuchascountrypeopleprepare；foradessertweshallgivethemfigs，andpeas，andbeans；andtheywillroastmyrtle—berriesandacornsatthefire，drinkinginmoderation。Andwithsuchadiettheymaybeexpectedtoliveinpeaceandhealthtoagoodoldage，andbequeathasimilarlifetotheirchildrenafterthem。 Yes，Socrates，hesaid，andifyouwereprovidingforacityofpigs，howelsewouldyoufeedthebeasts？ Butwhatwouldyouhave，Glaucon？Ireplied。 Why，hesaid，youshouldgivethemtheordinaryconveniencesoflife。Peoplewhoaretobecomfortableareaccustomedtolieonsofas，anddineofftables，andtheyshouldhavesaucesandsweetsinthemodernstyle。 Yes，Isaid，nowIunderstand：thequestionwhichyouwouldhavemeconsideris，notonlyhowaState，buthowaluxuriousStateiscreated；andpossiblythereisnoharminthis，forinsuchaStateweshallbemorelikelytoseehowjusticeandinjusticeoriginate。InmyopinionthetrueandhealthyconstitutionoftheStateistheonewhichIhavedescribed。ButifyouwishalsotoseeaStateatfeverheat，Ihavenoobjection。ForIsuspectthatmanywillnotbesatisfiedwiththesimplerwayofwayTheywillbeforaddingsofas，andtables，andotherfurniture；alsodainties，andperfumes，andincense，andcourtesans，andcakes，allthesenotofonesortonly，butineveryvariety；wemustgobeyondthenecessariesofwhichIwasatfirstspeaking，suchashouses，andclothes，andshoes：theartsofthepainterandtheembroidererwillhavetobesetinmotion，andgoldandivoryandallsortsofmaterialsmustbeprocured。 True，hesaid。 Thenwemustenlargeourborders；fortheoriginalhealthyStateisnolongersufficient。Nowwillthecityhavetofillandswellwithamultitudeofcallingswhicharenotrequiredbyanynaturalwant； suchasthewholetribeofhuntersandactors，ofwhomonelargeclasshavetodowithformsandcolours；anotherwillbethevotariesofmusic——poetsandtheirattendanttrainofrhapsodists，players，dancers，contractors；alsomakersofdiverskindsofarticles，includingwomen’sdresses。Andweshallwantmoreservants。Willnottutorsbealsoinrequest，andnurseswetanddry，tirewomenandbarbers，aswellasconfectionersandcooks；andswineherds，too，whowerenotneededandthereforehadnoplaceintheformereditionofourState，butareneedednow？Theymustnotbeforgotten：andtherewillbeanimalsofmanyotherkinds，ifpeopleeatthem。 Certainly。 Andlivinginthiswayweshallhavemuchgreaterneedofphysiciansthanbefore？ Muchgreater。 Andthecountrywhichwasenoughtosupporttheoriginalinhabitantswillbetoosmallnow，andnotenough？ Quitetrue。 Thenasliceofourneighbours’landwillbewantedbyusforpastureandtillage，andtheywillwantasliceofours，if，likeourselves，theyexceedthelimitofnecessity，andgivethemselvesuptotheunlimitedaccumulationofwealth？ That，Socrates，willbeinevitable。 Andsoweshallgotowar，Glaucon。Shallwenot？ Mostcertainly，hereplied。 Thenwithoutdeterminingasyetwhetherwardoesgoodorharm，thusmuchwemayaffirm，thatnowwehavediscoveredwartobederivedfromcauseswhicharealsothecausesofalmostalltheevilsinStates，privateaswellaspublic。 Undoubtedly。 AndourStatemustoncemoreenlarge；andthistimethewillbenothingshortofawholearmy，whichwillhavetogooutandfightwiththeinvadersforallthatwehave，aswellasforthethingsandpersonswhomweweredescribingabove。 Why？hesaid；aretheynotcapableofdefendingthemselves？ No，Isaid；notifwewererightintheprinciplewhichwasacknowledgedbyallofuswhenwewereframingtheState：theprinciple，asyouwillremember，wasthatonemancannotpractisemanyartswithsuccess。 Verytrue，hesaid。 Butisnotwaranart？ Certainly。 Andanartrequiringasmuchattentionasshoemaking？ Quitetrue。 Andtheshoemakerwasnotallowedbyustobehusbandman，oraweaver，abuilder——inorderthatwemighthaveourshoeswellmade； buttohimandtoeveryotherworkerwasassignedoneworkforwhichhewasbynaturefitted，andatthathewastocontinueworkingallhislifelongandatnoother；hewasnottoletopportunitiesslip，andthenhewouldbecomeagoodworkman。Nownothingcanbemoreimportantthanthattheworkofasoldiershouldbewelldone。Butiswaranartsoeasilyacquiredthatamanmaybeawarriorwhoisalsoahusbandman，orshoemaker，orotherartisan；althoughnooneintheworldwouldbeagooddiceordraughtplayerwhomerelytookupthegameasarecreation，andhadnotfromhisearliestyearsdevotedhimselftothisandnothingelse？ Notoolswillmakeamanaskilledworkman，ormasterofdefence，norbeofanyusetohimwhohasnotlearnedhowtohandlethem，andhasneverbestowedanyattentionuponthem。Howthenwillhewhotakesupashieldorotherimplementofwarbecomeagoodfighterallinaday，whetherwithheavy—armedoranyotherkindoftroops？ Yes，hesaid，thetoolswhichwouldteachmentheirownusewouldbebeyondprice。 Andthehigherthedutiesoftheguardian，Isaid，themoretime，andskill，andart，andapplicationwillbeneededbyhim？ Nodoubt，hereplied。 Willhenotalsorequirenaturalaptitudeforhiscalling？ Certainly。 Thenitwillbeourdutytoselect，ifwecan，natureswhicharefittedforthetaskofguardingthecity？ Itwill。 Andtheselectionwillbenoeasymatter，Isaid；butwemustbebraveanddoourbest。 Wemust。 Isnotthenobleyouthverylikeawell—breddoginrespectofguardingandwatching？ Whatdoyoumean？ Imeanthatbothofthemoughttobequicktosee，andswifttoovertaketheenemywhentheyseehim；andstrongtooif，whentheyhavecaughthim，theyhavetofightwithhim。 Allthesequalities，hereplied，willcertainlyberequiredbythem。 Well，andyourguardianmustbebraveifheistofightwell？ Certainly。 Andishelikelytobebravewhohasnospirit，whetherhorseordogoranyotheranimal？Haveyouneverobservedhowinvincibleandunconquerableisspiritandhowthepresenceofitmakesthesoulofanycreaturetobeabsolutelyfearlessandindomitable？ Ihave。 Thennowwehaveaclearnotionofthebodilyqualitieswhicharerequiredintheguardian。 True。 Andalsoofthementalones；hissoulistobefullofspirit？ Yes。 Butarenotthesespiritednaturesapttobesavagewithoneanother，andwitheverybodyelse？ Adifficultybynomeanseasytoovercome，hereplied。 Whereas，Isaid，theyoughttobedangeroustotheirenemies，andgentletotheirfriends；ifnot，theywilldestroythemselveswithoutwaitingfortheirenemiestodestroythem。 True，hesaid。 Whatistobedonethen？Isaid；howshallwefindagentlenaturewhichhasalsoagreatspirit，fortheoneisthecontradictionoftheother？ True。 Hewillnotbeagoodguardianwhoiswantingineitherofthesetwoqualities；andyetthecombinationofthemappearstobeimpossible； andhencewemustinferthattobeagoodguardianisimpossible。 Iamafraidthatwhatyousayistrue，hereplied。 HerefeelingperplexedIbegantothinkoverwhathadpreceded。Myfriend，Isaid，nowonderthatweareinaperplexity；forwehavelostsightoftheimagewhichwehadbeforeus。 Whatdoyoumean？hesaid。 Imeantosaythattheredoexistnaturesgiftedwiththoseoppositequalities。 Andwheredoyoufindthem？ Manyanimals，Ireplied，furnishexamplesofthem；ourfriendthedogisaverygoodone：youknowthatwell—breddogsareperfectlygentletotheirfamiliarsandacquaintances，andthereversetostrangers。 Yes，Iknow。 Thenthereisnothingimpossibleoroutoftheorderofnatureinourfindingaguardianwhohasasimilarcombinationofqualities？ Certainlynot。 Wouldnothewhoisfittedtobeaguardian，besidesthespiritednature，needtohavethequalitiesofaphilosopher？ Idonotapprehendyourmeaning。 ThetraitofwhichIamspeaking，Ireplied，maybealsoseeninthedog，andisremarkableintheanimal。 Whattrait？ Why，adog，wheneverheseesastranger，isangry；whenanacquaintance，hewelcomeshim，althoughtheonehasneverdonehimanyharm，northeotheranygood。Didthisneverstrikeyouascurious？ Thematterneverstruckmebefore；butIquiterecognisethetruthofyourremark。 Andsurelythisinstinctofthedogisverycharming；——yourdogisatruephilosopher。 Why？ Why，becausehedistinguishesthefaceofafriendandofanenemyonlybythecriterionofknowingandnotknowing。Andmustnotananimalbealoveroflearningwhodetermineswhathelikesanddislikesbythetestofknowledgeandignorance？ Mostassuredly。 Andisnottheloveoflearningtheloveofwisdom，whichisphilosophy？ Theyarethesame，hereplied。 Andmaywenotsayconfidentlyofmanalso，thathewhoislikelytobegentletohisfriendsandacquaintances，mustbynaturebealoverofwisdomandknowledge？ Thatwemaysafelyaffirm。 ThenhewhoistobeareallygoodandnobleguardianoftheStatewillrequiretouniteinhimselfphilosophyandspiritandswiftnessandstrength？ Undoubtedly。 Thenwehavefoundthedesirednatures；andnowthatwehavefoundthem，howaretheytoberearedandeducated？Isnotthisenquirywhichmaybeexpectedtothrowlightonthegreaterenquirywhichisourfinalend——HowdojusticeandinjusticegrowupinStates？forwedonotwanteithertoomitwhatistothepointortodrawouttheargumenttoaninconvenientlength。 SOCRATES—ADEIMANTUS Adeimantusthoughtthattheenquirywouldbeofgreatservicetous。 Then，Isaid，mydearfriend，thetaskmustnotbegivenup，evenifsomewhatlong。 Certainlynot。 Comethen，andletuspassaleisurehourinstory—telling，andourstoryshallbetheeducationofourheroes。 Byallmeans。 Andwhatshallbetheireducation？Canwefindabetterthanthetraditionalsort？——andthishastwodivisions，gymnasticforthebody，andmusicforthesoul。 True。 Shallwebegineducationwithmusic，andgoontogymnasticafterwards？ Byallmeans。 Andwhenyouspeakofmusic，doyouincludeliteratureornot？ Ido。 Andliteraturemaybeeithertrueorfalse？ Yes。 Andtheyoungshouldbetrainedinbothkinds，andwebeginwiththefalse？ Idonotunderstandyourmeaning，hesaid。 Youknow，Isaid，thatwebeginbytellingchildrenstorieswhich，thoughnotwhollydestituteoftruth，areinthemainfictitious； andthesestoriesaretoldthemwhentheyarenotofanagetolearngymnastics。 Verytrue。 ThatwasmymeaningwhenIsaidthatwemustteachmusicbeforegymnastics。 Quiteright，hesaid。 Youknowalsothatthebeginningisthemostimportantpartofanywork，especiallyinthecaseofayoungandtenderthing；forthatisthetimeatwhichthecharacterisbeingformedandthedesiredimpressionismorereadilytaken。 Quitetrue。 Andshallwejustcarelesslyallowchildrentohearanycasualtaleswhichmaybedevisedbycasualpersons，andtoreceiveintotheirmindsideasforthemostparttheveryoppositeofthosewhichweshouldwishthemtohavewhentheyaregrownup？ Wecannot。 Thenthefirstthingwillbetoestablishacensorshipofthewritersoffiction，andletthecensorsreceiveanytaleoffictionwhichisgood，andrejectthebad；andwewilldesiremothersandnursestotelltheirchildrentheauthorisedonesonly。Letthemfashionthemindwithsuchtales，evenmorefondlythantheymouldthebodywiththeirhands；butmostofthosewhicharenowinusemustbediscarded。 Ofwhattalesareyouspeaking？hesaid。 Youmayfindamodelofthelesserinthegreater，Isaid；fortheyarenecessarilyofthesametype，andthereisthesamespiritinbothofthem。 Verylikely，hereplied；butIdonotasyetknowwhatyouwouldtermthegreater。 Those，Isaid，whicharenarratedbyHomerandHesiod，andtherestofthepoets，whohaveeverbeenthegreatstory—tellersofmankind。 Butwhichstoriesdoyoumean，hesaid；andwhatfaultdoyoufindwiththem？ Afaultwhichismostserious，Isaid；thefaultoftellingalie，and，whatismore，abadlie。 Butwhenisthisfaultcommitted？ Wheneveranerroneousrepresentationismadeofthenatureofgodsandheroes，——aswhenapainterpaintsaportraitnothavingtheshadowofalikenesstotheoriginal。 Yes，hesaid，thatsortofthingiscertainlyveryblamable；butwhatarethestorieswhichyoumean？ Firstofall，Isaid，therewasthatgreatestofalllies，inhighplaces，whichthepoettoldaboutUranus，andwhichwasabadlietoo，——ImeanwhatHesiodsaysthatUranusdid，andhowCronusretaliatedonhim。ThedoingsofCronus，andthesufferingswhichinturnhissoninflicteduponhim，eveniftheyweretrue，oughtcertainlynottobelightlytoldtoyoungandthoughtlesspersons；ifpossible，theyhadbetterbeburiedinsilence。Butifthereisanabsolutenecessityfortheirmention，achosenfewmightheartheminamystery，andtheyshouldsacrificenotacommon[Eleusinian]pig，butsomehugeandunprocurablevictim；andthenthenumberofthehearerswillbeveryfewindeed。 Why，yes，saidhe，thosestoriesareextremelyobjectionable。 Yes，Adeimantus，theyarestoriesnottoberepeatedinourState； theyoungmanshouldnotbetoldthatincommittingtheworstofcrimesheisfarfromdoinganythingoutrageous；andthatevenifhechastiseshisfatherwhendoeswrong，inwhatevermanner，hewillonlybefollowingtheexampleofthefirstandgreatestamongthegods。 Ientirelyagreewithyou，hesaid；inmyopinionthosestoriesarequiteunfittoberepeated。 Neither，ifwemeanourfutureguardianstoregardthehabitofquarrellingamongthemselvesasofallthingsthebasest，shouldanywordbesaidtothemofthewarsinheaven，andoftheplotsandfightingsofthegodsagainstoneanother，fortheyarenottrue。 No，weshallnevermentionthebattlesofthegiants，orletthembeembroideredongarments；andweshallbesilentabouttheinnumerableotherquarrelsofgodsandheroeswiththeirfriendsandrelatives。Iftheywouldonlybelieveuswewouldtellthemthatquarrellingisunholy，andthatneveruptothistimehastherebeenany，quarrelbetweencitizens；thisiswhatoldmenandoldwomenshouldbeginbytellingchildren；andwhentheygrowup，thepoetsalsoshouldbetoldtocomposefortheminasimilarspirit。ButthenarrativeofHephaestusbindingHerehismother，orhowonanotheroccasionZeussenthimflyingfortakingherpartwhenshewasbeingbeaten，andallthebattlesofthegodsinHomer——thesetalesmustnotbeadmittedintoourState，whethertheyaresupposedtohaveanallegoricalmeaningornot。Forayoungpersoncannotjudgewhatisallegoricalandwhatisliteral；anythingthathereceivesintohismindatthatageislikelytobecomeindelibleandunalterable；andthereforeitismostimportantthatthetaleswhichtheyoungfirsthearshouldbemodelsofvirtuousthoughts。 Thereyouareright，hereplied；butifanyoneaskswherearesuchmodelstobefoundandofwhattalesareyouspeaking——howshallweanswerhim？ Isaidtohim，YouandI，Adeimantus，atthismomentarenotpoets，butfoundersofaState：nowthefoundersofaStateoughttoknowthegeneralformsinwhichpoetsshouldcasttheirtales，andthelimitswhichmustbeobservedbythem，buttomakethetalesisnottheirbusiness。 Verytrue，hesaid；butwhataretheseformsoftheologywhichyoumean？ Somethingofthiskind，Ireplied：——Godisalwaystoberepresentedashetrulyis，whateverbethesortofpoetry，epic，lyricortragic，inwhichtherepresentationisgiven。 Right。 Andishenottrulygood？andmusthenotberepresentedassuch？ Certainly。 Andnogoodthingishurtful？ No，indeed。 Andthatwhichisnothurtfulhurtsnot？ Certainlynot。 Andthatwhichhurtsnotdoesnoevil？ No。 Andcanthatwhichdoesnoevilbeacauseofevil？ Impossible。 Andthegoodisadvantageous？ Yes。 Andthereforethecauseofwell—being？ Yes。 Itfollowsthereforethatthegoodisnotthecauseofallthings，butofthegoodonly？ Assuredly。 ThenGod，ifhebegood，isnottheauthorofallthings，asthemanyassert，butheisthecauseofafewthingsonly，andnotofmostthingsthatoccurtomen。Forfewarethegoodsofhumanlife，andmanyaretheevils，andthegoodistobeattributedtoGodalone； oftheevilsthecausesaretobesoughtelsewhere，andnotinhim。 Thatappearstometobemosttrue，hesaid。 ThenwemustnotlistentoHomerortoanyotherpoetwhoisguiltyofthefollyofsayingthattwocasksLieatthethresholdofZeus，fulloflots，oneofgood，theotherofevillots，andthathetowhomZeusgivesamixtureofthetwoSometimesmeetswithevilfortune，atothertimeswithgood； butthathetowhomisgiventhecupofunmingledill，Himwildhungerdriveso’erthebeauteousearth。 AndagainZeus，whoisthedispenserofgoodandeviltous。 Andifanyoneassertsthattheviolationofoathsandtreaties，whichwasreallytheworkofPandarus，wasbroughtaboutbyAtheneandZeus，orthatthestrifeandcontentionofthegodswasinstigatedbyThemisandZeus，heshallnothaveourapproval；neitherwillweallowouryoungmentohearthewordsofAeschylus，thatGodplantsguiltamongmenwhenhedesiresutterlytodestroyahouse。 AndifapoetwritesofthesufferingsofNiobe——thesubjectofthetragedyinwhichtheseiambicversesoccur——orofthehouseofPelops，oroftheTrojanwaroronanysimilartheme，eitherwemustnotpermithimtosaythatthesearetheworksofGod，oriftheyareofGod，hemustdevisesomeexplanationofthemsuchasweareseeking；hemustsaythatGoddidwhatwasjustandright，andtheywerethebetterforbeingpunished；butthatthosewhoarepunishedaremiserable，andthatGodistheauthoroftheirmisery——thepoetisnottobepermittedtosay；thoughhemaysaythatthewickedaremiserablebecausetheyrequiretobepunished，andarebenefitedbyreceivingpunishmentfromGod；butthatGodbeinggoodistheauthorofeviltoanyoneistobestrenuouslydenied，andnottobesaidorsungorheardinverseorprosebyanyonewhetheroldoryounginanywell—orderedcommonwealth。Suchafictionissuicidal，ruinous，impious。 Iagreewithyou，hereplied，andamreadytogivemyassenttothelaw。 Letthisthenbeoneofourrulesandprinciplesconcerningthegods，towhichourpoetsandreciterswillbeexpectedtoconform——thatGodisnottheauthorofallthings，butofgoodonly。