第2章

WhenThrasymachushasbeensilenced，thetwoprincipalrespondents，GlauconandAdeimantus，appearonthescene：here，asinGreektragedy，threeactorsareintroduced。AtfirstsightthetwosonsofAristonmayseemtowearafamilylikeness，likethetwofriendsSimmiasandCebesinthePhaedo。Butonanearerexaminationofthemthesimilarityvanishes，andtheyareseentobedistinctcharacters。Glauconistheimpetuousyouthwhocan\"justneverhaveenoughoffechting\"（cf。thecharacterofhiminXen。Mem。iii。6）； themanofpleasurewhoisacquaintedwiththemysteriesoflove； the\"juvenisquigaudetcanibus，\"andwhoimprovesthebreedofanimals；theloverofartandmusicwhohasalltheexperiencesofyouthfullife。Heisfullofquicknessandpenetration，piercingeasilybelowtheclumsyplatitudesofThrasymachustotherealdifficulty；heturnsouttothelighttheseamysideofhumanlife，andyetdoesnotlosefaithinthejustandtrue。ItisGlauconwhoseizeswhatmaybetermedtheludicrousrelationofthephilosophertotheworld，towhomastateofsimplicityis\"acityofpigs，\"whoisalwayspreparedwithajestwhentheargumentoffershimanopportunity，andwhoiseverreadytosecondthehumorofSocratesandtoappreciatetheridiculous，whetherintheconnoisseursofmusic，orintheloversoftheatricals，orinthefantasticbehaviorofthecitizensofdemocracy。HisweaknessesareseveraltimesalludedtobySocrates，who，however，willnotallowhimtobeattackedbyhisbrotherAdeimantus。Heisasoldier，and，likeAdeimantus，hasbeendistinguishedatthebattleofMegara。 ThecharacterofAdeimantusisdeeperandgraver，andtheprofounderobjectionsarecommonlyputintohismouth。Glauconismoredemonstrative，andgenerallyopensthegame。Adeimantuspursuestheargumentfurther。Glauconhasmoreofthelivelinessandquicksympathyofyouth；Adeimantushasthematurerjudgmentofagrown—upmanoftheworld。Inthesecondbook，whenGlauconinsiststhatjusticeandinjusticeshallbeconsideredwithoutregardtotheirconsequences，Adeimantusremarksthattheyareregardedbymankindingeneralonlyforthesakeoftheirconsequences；andinasimilarveinofreflectionheurgesatthebeginningofthefourthbookthatSocratesfallsinmakinghiscitizenshappy，andisansweredthathappinessisnotthefirstbutthesecondthing，notthedirectaimbuttheindirectconsequenceofthegoodgovernmentofaState。Inthediscussionaboutreligionandmythology，Adeimantusistherespondent，butGlauconbreaksinwithaslightjest，andcarriesontheconversationinalightertoneaboutmusicandgymnastictotheendofthebook。ItisAdeimantusagainwhovolunteersthecriticismofcommonsenseontheSocraticmethodofargument，andwhorefusestoletSocratespasslightlyoverthequestionofwomenandchildren。 ItisAdeimantuswhoistherespondentinthemoreargumentative，asGlauconinthelighterandmoreimaginativeportionsoftheDialogue。Forexample，throughoutthegreaterpartofthesixthbook，thecausesofthecorruptionofphilosophyandtheconceptionoftheideaofgoodarediscussedwithAdeimantus。ThenGlauconresumeshisplaceofprincipalrespondent；buthehasadifficultyinapprehendingthehighereducationofSocrates，andmakessomefalsehitsinthecourseofthediscussion。OncemoreAdeimantusreturnswiththeallusiontohisbrotherGlauconwhomhecomparestothecontentiousState；inthenextbookheisagainsuperseded，andGlauconcontinuestotheend。 ThusinasuccessionofcharactersPlatorepresentsthesuccessivestagesofmorality，beginningwiththeAtheniangentlemanoftheoldentime，whoisfollowedbythepracticalmanofthatdayregulatinghislifebyproverbsandsaws；tohimsucceedsthewildgeneralizationoftheSophists，andlastlycometheyoungdisciplesofthegreatteacher，whoknowthesophisticalargumentsbutwillnotbeconvincedbythem，anddesiretogodeeperintothenatureofthings。Thesetoo，likeCephalus，Polemarchus，Thrasymachus，areclearlydistinguishedfromoneanother。NeitherintheRepublic，norinanyotherDialogueofPlato，isasinglecharacterrepeated。 ThedelineationofSocratesintheRepublicisnotwhollyconsistent。InthefirstbookwehavemoreoftherealSocrates，suchasheisdepictedintheMemorabiliaofXenophon，intheearliestDialoguesofPlato，andintheApology。Heisironical，provoking，questioning，theoldenemyoftheSophists，readytoputonthemaskofSilenusaswellastoargueseriously。ButinthesixthbookhisenmitytowardstheSophistsabates；heacknowledgesthattheyaretherepresentativesratherthanthecorruptersoftheworld。Healsobecomesmoredogmaticandconstructive，passingbeyondtherangeeitherofthepoliticalorthespeculativeideasoftherealSocrates。 InonepassagePlatohimselfseemstointimatethatthetimehadnowcomeforSocrates，whohadpassedhiswholelifeinphilosophy，togivehisownopinionandnottobealwaysrepeatingthenotionsofothermen。ThereisnoevidencethateithertheideaofgoodortheconceptionofaperfectStatewerecomprehendedintheSocraticteaching，thoughhecertainlydweltonthenatureoftheuniversalandoffinalcauses（cp。Xen。Mem。i。4；Phaedo97）；andadeepthinkerlikehiminhisthirtyorfortyyearsofpublicteaching，couldhardlyhavefalledtotouchonthenatureoffamilyrelations，forwhichthereisalsosomepositiveevidenceintheMemorabilia（Mem。i。2，51 foll。）TheSocraticmethodisnominallyretained；andeveryinferenceiseitherputintothemouthoftherespondentorrepresentedasthecommondiscoveryofhimandSocrates。Butanyonecanseethatthisisamereform，ofwhichtheaffectationgrowswearisomeastheworkadvances。Themethodofinquiryhaspassedintoamethodofteachinginwhichbythehelpofinterlocutorsthesamethesisislookedatfromvariouspointsofview。 ThenatureoftheprocessistrulycharacterizedbyGlaucon，whenhedescribeshimselfasacompanionwhoisnotgoodformuchinaninvestigation，butcanseewhatheisshown，andmay，perhaps，givetheanswertoaquestionmorefluentlythananother。 Neithercanwebeabsolutelycertainthat，Socrateshimselftaughttheimmortalityofthesoul，whichisunknowntohisdiscipleGlauconintheRepublic；noristhereanyreasontosupposethatheusedmythsorrevelationsofanotherworldasavehicleofinstruction，orthathewouldhavebanishedpoetryorhavedenouncedtheGreekmythology。Hisfavoriteoathisretained，andaslightmentionismadeofthedaemonium，orinternalsign，whichisalludedtobySocratesasaphenomenonpeculiartohimself。ArealelementofSocraticteaching，whichismoreprominentintheRepublicthaninanyoftheotherDialoguesofPlato，istheuseofexampleandillustration（’taphorhtikaautoprhospherhontez’）：\"Letusapplythetestofcommoninstances。\"\"You，\"saysAdeimantus，ironically，inthesixthbook，\"aresounaccustomedtospeakinimages。\"Andthisuseofexamplesorimages，thoughtrulySocraticinorigin，isenlargedbythegeniusofPlatointotheformofanallegoryorparable，whichembodiesintheconcretewhathasbeenalreadydescribed，orisabouttobedescribed，intheabstract。ThusthefigureofthecaveinBookVIIisarecapitulationofthedivisionsofknowledgeinBookVI。 ThecompositeanimalinBookIXisanallegoryofthepartsofthesoul。ThenoblecaptainandtheshipandthetruepilotinBookVIareafigureoftherelationofthepeopletothephilosophersintheStatewhichhasbeendescribed。Otherfigures，suchasthedoginthesecond，third，andfourthbooks，orthemarriageoftheportionlessmaideninthesixthbook，orthedronesandwaspsintheeighthandninthbooks，alsoformlinksofconnectioninlongpassages，orareusedtorecallpreviousdiscussions。 Platoismosttruetothecharacterofhismasterwhenhedescribeshimas\"notofthisworld。\"AndwiththisrepresentationofhimtheidealStateandtheotherparadoxesoftheRepublicarequiteinaccordance，thoughtheycannotbeshowntohavebeenspeculationsofSocrates。Tohim，astoothergreatteachersbothphilosophicalandreligious，whentheylookedupward，theworldseemedtobetheembodimentoferrorandevil。Thecommonsenseofmankindhasrevoltedagainstthisview，orhasonlypartiallyadmittedit。AndeveninSocrateshimselfthesternerjudgmentofthemultitudeattimespassesintoasortofironicalpityorlove。Meningeneralareincapableofphilosophy，andarethereforeatenmitywiththephilosopher；buttheirmisunderstandingofhimisunavoidable：fortheyhaveneverseenhimashetrulyisinhisownimage；theyareonlyacquaintedwithartificialsystemspossessingnonativeforceoftruth——wordswhichadmitofmanyapplications。Theirleadershavenothingtomeasurewith，andarethereforeignorantoftheirownstature。Buttheyaretobepitiedorlaughedat，nottobequarrelledwith；theymeanwellwiththeirnostrums，iftheycouldonlylearnthattheyarecuttingoffaHydra’shead。ThismoderationtowardsthosewhoareinerrorisoneofthemostcharacteristicfeaturesofSocratesintheRepublic。InallthedifferentrepresentationsofSocrates，whetherofXenophonorPlato，andthedifferencesoftheearlierorlaterDialogues，healwaysretainsthecharacteroftheunweariedanddisinterestedseekeraftertruth，withoutwhichhewouldhaveceasedtobeSocrates。 LeavingthecharacterswemaynowanalyzethecontentsoftheRepublic，andthenproceedtoconsider（1）ThegeneralaspectsofthisHellenicidealoftheState，（2）ThemodernlightsinwhichthethoughtsofPlatomayberead。 BOOKI SOCRATES—GLAUCON IWENTdownyesterdaytothePiraeuswithGlauconthesonofAriston，thatImightofferupmyprayerstothegoddess；andalsobecauseIwantedtoseeinwhatmannertheywouldcelebratethefestival，whichwasanewthing。Iwasdelightedwiththeprocessionoftheinhabitants；butthatoftheThracianswasequally，ifnotmore，beautiful。Whenwehadfinishedourprayersandviewedthespectacle，weturnedinthedirectionofthecity；andatthatinstantPolemarchusthesonofCephaluschancedtocatchsightofusfromadistanceaswewerestartingonourwayhome，andtoldhisservanttorunandbiduswaitforhim。Theservanttookholdofmebythecloakbehind，andsaid：Polemarchusdesiresyoutowait。 Iturnedround，andaskedhimwherehismasterwas。 Thereheis，saidtheyouth，comingafteryou，ifyouwillonlywait。 Certainlywewill，saidGlaucon；andinafewminutesPolemarchusappeared，andwithhimAdeimantus，Glaucon’sbrother，NiceratusthesonofNicias，andseveralotherswhohadbeenattheprocession。 SOCRATES—POLEMARCHUS—GLAUCON—ADEIMANTUS Polemarchussaidtome：Iperceive，Socrates，thatyouandourcompanionarealreadyonyourwaytothecity。 Youarenotfarwrong，Isaid。 Butdoyousee，herejoined，howmanyweare？ Ofcourse。 Andareyoustrongerthanallthese？forifnot，youwillhavetoremainwhereyouare。 Maytherenotbethealternative，Isaid，thatwemaypersuadeyoutoletusgo？ Butcanyoupersuadeus，ifwerefusetolistentoyou？hesaid。 Certainlynot，repliedGlaucon。 Thenwearenotgoingtolisten；ofthatyoumaybeassured。 Adeimantusadded：Hasnoonetoldyouofthetorch—raceonhorsebackinhonourofthegoddesswhichwilltakeplaceintheevening？ Withhorses！Ireplied：Thatisanovelty。Willhorsemencarrytorchesandpassthemonetoanotherduringtherace？ Yes，saidPolemarchus，andnotonlyso，butafestivalwillhecelebratedatnight，whichyoucertainlyoughttosee。Letusrisesoonaftersupperandseethisfestival；therewillbeagatheringofyoungmen，andwewillhaveagoodtalk。Staythen，anddonotbeperverse。 Glauconsaid：Isuppose，sinceyouinsist，thatwemust。 Verygood，Ireplied。 GLAUCON—CEPHALUS—SOCRATES AccordinglywewentwithPolemarchustohishouse；andtherewefoundhisbrothersLysiasandEuthydemus，andwiththemThrasymachustheChalcedonian，CharmantidesthePaeanian，andCleitophonthesonofAristonymus。TheretoowasCephalusthefatherofPolemarchus，whomIhadnotseenforalongtime，andIthoughthimverymuchaged。Hewasseatedonacushionedchair，andhadagarlandonhishead，forhehadbeensacrificinginthecourt；andthereweresomeotherchairsintheroomarrangedinasemicircle，uponwhichwesatdownbyhim。Hesalutedmeeagerly，andthenhesaid：—— Youdon’tcometoseeme，Socrates，asoftenasyouought：IfIwerestillabletogoandseeyouIwouldnotaskyoutocometome。ButatmyageIcanhardlygettothecity，andthereforeyoushouldcomeoftenertothePiraeus。Forletmetellyou，thatthemorethepleasuresofthebodyfadeaway，thegreatertomeisthepleasureandcharmofconversation。Donotthendenymyrequest，butmakeourhouseyourresortandkeepcompanywiththeseyoungmen；weareoldfriends，andyouwillbequiteathomewithus。 Ireplied：ThereisnothingwhichformypartIlikebetter，Cephalus，thanconversingwithagedmen；forIregardthemastravellerswhohavegoneajourneywhichItoomayhavetogo，andofwhomIoughttoenquire，whetherthewayissmoothandeasy，orruggedanddifficult。AndthisisaquestionwhichIshouldliketoaskofyouwhohavearrivedatthattimewhichthepoetscallthe’thresholdofoldage’——Islifehardertowardstheend，orwhatreportdoyougiveofit？ Iwilltellyou，Socrates，hesaid，whatmyownfeelingis。Menofmyageflocktogether；wearebirdsofafeather，astheoldproverbsays；andatourmeetingsthetaleofmyacquaintancecommonlyis——Icannoteat，Icannotdrink；thepleasuresofyouthandlovearefledaway：therewasagoodtimeonce，butnowthatisgone，andlifeisnolongerlife。Somecomplainoftheslightswhichareputuponthembyrelations，andtheywilltellyousadlyofhowmanyevilstheiroldageisthecause。Buttome，Socrates，thesecomplainersseemtoblamethatwhichisnotreallyinfault。Forifoldagewerethecause，Itoobeingold，andeveryotheroldman，wouldhavefeltastheydo。Butthisisnotmyownexperience，northatofotherswhomIhaveknown。HowwellIremembertheagedpoetSophocles，wheninanswertothequestion，Howdoeslovesuitwithage，Sophocles，——areyoustillthemanyouwere？Peace，hereplied；mostgladlyhaveIescapedthethingofwhichyouspeak；IfeelasifIhadescapedfromamadandfuriousmaster。Hiswordshaveoftenoccurredtomymindsince，andtheyseemasgoodtomenowasatthetimewhenheutteredthem。Forcertainlyoldagehasagreatsenseofcalmandfreedom；whenthepassionsrelaxtheirhold，then，asSophoclessays，wearefreedfromthegraspnotofonemadmasteronly，butofmany。Thetruthis，Socrates，thattheseregrets，andalsothecomplaintsaboutrelations，aretobeattributedtothesamecause，whichisnotoldage，butmen’scharactersandtempers； forhewhoisofacalmandhappynaturewillhardlyfeelthepressureofage，buttohimwhoisofanoppositedispositionyouthandageareequallyaburden。 Ilistenedinadmiration，andwantingtodrawhimout，thathemightgoon——Yes，Cephalus，Isaid：butIrathersuspectthatpeopleingeneralarenotconvincedbyyouwhenyouspeakthus；theythinkthatoldagesitslightlyuponyou，notbecauseofyourhappydisposition，butbecauseyouarerich，andwealthiswellknowntobeagreatcomforter。 Youareright，hereplied；theyarenotconvinced：andthereissomethinginwhattheysay；not，however，somuchastheyimagine。I mightanswerthemasThemistoclesansweredtheSeriphianwhowasabusinghimandsayingthathewasfamous，notforhisownmeritsbutbecausehewasanAthenian：’IfyouhadbeenanativeofmycountryorIofyours，neitherofuswouldhavebeenfamous。’Andtothosewhoarenotrichandareimpatientofoldage，thesamereplymaybemade；fortothegoodpoormanoldagecannotbealightburden，norcanabadrichmaneverhavepeacewithhimself。 MayIask，Cephalus，whetheryourfortunewasforthemostpartinheritedoracquiredbyyou？ Acquired！Socrates；doyouwanttoknowhowmuchIacquired？IntheartofmakingmoneyIhavebeenmidwaybetweenmyfatherandgrandfather：formygrandfather，whosenameIbear，doubledandtrebledthevalueofhispatrimony，thatwhichheinheritedbeingmuchwhatIpossessnow；butmyfatherLysaniasreducedthepropertybelowwhatitisatpresent：andIshallbesatisfiedifIleavetothesemysonsnotlessbutalittlemorethanIreceived。 ThatwaswhyIaskedyouthequestion，Ireplied，becauseIseethatyouareindifferentaboutmoney，whichisacharacteristicratherofthosewhohaveinheritedtheirfortunesthanofthosewhohaveacquiredthem；themakersoffortuneshaveasecondloveofmoneyasacreationoftheirown，resemblingtheaffectionofauthorsfortheirownpoems，orofparentsfortheirchildren，besidesthatnaturalloveofitforthesakeofuseandprofitwhichiscommontothemandallmen。Andhencetheyareverybadcompany，fortheycantalkaboutnothingbutthepraisesofwealth。Thatistrue，hesaid。 Yes，thatisverytrue，butmayIaskanotherquestion？Whatdoyouconsidertobethegreatestblessingwhichyouhavereapedfromyourwealth？ One，hesaid，ofwhichIcouldnotexpecteasilytoconvinceothers。 Forletmetellyou，Socrates，thatwhenamanthinkshimselftobeneardeath，fearsandcaresenterintohismindwhichheneverhadbefore；thetalesofaworldbelowandthepunishmentwhichisexactedthereofdeedsdoneherewereoncealaughingmattertohim，butnowheistormentedwiththethoughtthattheymaybetrue：eitherfromtheweaknessofage，orbecauseheisnowdrawingnearertothatotherplace，hehasaclearerviewofthesethings；suspicionsandalarmscrowdthicklyuponhim，andhebeginstoreflectandconsiderwhatwrongshehasdonetoothers。Andwhenhefindsthatthesumofhistransgressionsisgreathewillmanyatimelikeachildstartupinhissleepforfear，andheisfilledwithdarkforebodings。Buttohimwhoisconsciousofnosin，sweethope，asPindarcharminglysays，isthekindnurseofhisage： Hope，hesays，cherishesthesoulofhimwholivesinjusticeandholinessandisthenurseofhisageandthecompanionofhisjourney； ——hopewhichismightiesttoswaytherestlesssoulofman。 Howadmirablearehiswords！Andthegreatblessingofriches，I donotsaytoeveryman，buttoagoodman，is，thathehashadnooccasiontodeceiveortodefraudothers，eitherintentionallyorunintentionally；andwhenhedepartstotheworldbelowheisnotinanyapprehensionaboutofferingsduetothegodsordebtswhichheowestomen。Nowtothispeaceofmindthepossessionofwealthgreatlycontributes；andthereforeIsay，that，settingonethingagainstanother，ofthemanyadvantageswhichwealthhastogive，toamanofsensethisisinmyopinionthegreatest。 Wellsaid，Cephalus，Ireplied；butasconcerningjustice，whatisit？——tospeakthetruthandtopayyourdebts——nomorethanthis？ Andeventothisaretherenotexceptions？Supposethatafriendwheninhisrightmindhasdepositedarmswithmeandheasksforthemwhenheisnotinhisrightmind，oughtItogivethembacktohim？NoonewouldsaythatIoughtorthatIshouldberightindoingso，anymorethantheywouldsaythatIoughtalwaystospeakthetruthtoonewhoisinhiscondition。 Youarequiteright，hereplied。 Butthen，Isaid，speakingthetruthandpayingyourdebtsisnotacorrectdefinitionofjustice。 CEPHALUS—SOCRATES—POLEMARCHUS Quitecorrect，Socrates，ifSimonidesistobebelieved，saidPolemarchusinterposing。 Ifear，saidCephalus，thatImustgonow，forIhavetolookafterthesacrifices，andIhandovertheargumenttoPolemarchusandthecompany。 IsnotPolemarchusyourheir？Isaid。 Tobesure，heanswered，andwentawaylaughingtothesacrifices。 SOCRATES—POLEMARCHUS Tellmethen，Othouheiroftheargument，whatdidSimonidessay，andaccordingtoyoutrulysay，aboutjustice？ Hesaidthattherepaymentofadebtisjust，andinsayingsoheappearstometoberight。 Ishouldbesorrytodoubtthewordofsuchawiseandinspiredman，buthismeaning，thoughprobablycleartoyou，isthereverseofcleartome。Forhecertainlydoesnotmean，aswewerenowsayingthatI oughttoreturnareturnadepositofarmsorofanythingelsetoonewhoasksforitwhenheisnotinhisrightsenses；andyetadepositcannotbedeniedtobeadebt。 True。 ThenwhenthepersonwhoasksmeisnotinhisrightmindIambynomeanstomakethereturn？ Certainlynot。 WhenSimonidessaidthattherepaymentofadebtwasjustice，hedidnotmeantoincludethatcase？ Certainlynot；forhethinksthatafriendoughtalwaystodogoodtoafriendandneverevil。 Youmeanthatthereturnofadepositofgoldwhichistotheinjuryofthereceiver，ifthetwopartiesarefriends，isnottherepaymentofadebt，——thatiswhatyouwouldimaginehimtosay？ Yes。 Andareenemiesalsotoreceivewhatweowetothem？ Tobesure，hesaid，theyaretoreceivewhatweowethem，andanenemy，asItakeit，owestoanenemythatwhichisdueorpropertohim——thatistosay，evil。 Simonides，then，afterthemannerofpoets，wouldseemtohavespokendarklyofthenatureofjustice；forhereallymeanttosaythatjusticeisthegivingtoeachmanwhatispropertohim，andthishetermedadebt。 Thatmusthavebeenhismeaning，hesaid。 Byheaven！Ireplied；andifweaskedhimwhatdueorproperthingisgivenbymedicine，andtowhom，whatanswerdoyouthinkthathewouldmaketous？ Hewouldsurelyreplythatmedicinegivesdrugsandmeatanddrinktohumanbodies。 Andwhatdueorproperthingisgivenbycookery，andtowhat？ Seasoningtofood。 Andwhatisthatwhichjusticegives，andtowhom？ If，Socrates，wearetobeguidedatallbytheanalogyoftheprecedinginstances，thenjusticeistheartwhichgivesgoodtofriendsandeviltoenemies。 Thatishismeaningthen？ Ithinkso。 Andwhoisbestabletodogoodtohisfriendsandeviltohisenemiesintimeofsickness？ Thephysician。 Orwhentheyareonavoyage，amidtheperilsofthesea？ Thepilot。 Andinwhatsortofactionsorwithaviewtowhatresultisthejustmanmostabletodoharmtohisenemyandgoodtohisfriends？ Ingoingtowaragainsttheoneandinmakingallianceswiththeother。 Butwhenamaniswell，mydearPolemarchus，thereisnoneedofaphysician？ No。 Andhewhoisnotonavoyagehasnoneedofapilot？ No。 Thenintimeofpeacejusticewillbeofnouse？ Iamveryfarfromthinkingso。 Youthinkthatjusticemaybeofuseinpeaceaswellasinwar？ Yes。 Likehusbandryfortheacquisitionofcorn？ Yes。 Orlikeshoemakingfortheacquisitionofshoes，——thatiswhatyoumean？ Yes。 Andwhatsimilaruseorpowerofacquisitionhasjusticeintimeofpeace？ Incontracts，Socrates，justiceisofuse。 Andbycontractsyoumeanpartnerships？ Exactly。 Butisthejustmanortheskilfulplayeramoreusefulandbetterpartneratagameofdraughts？ Theskilfulplayer。 Andinthelayingofbricksandstonesisthejustmanamoreusefulorbetterpartnerthanthebuilder？ Quitethereverse。