第1章

THERepublicofPlatoisthelongestofhisworkswiththeexceptionoftheLaws，andiscertainlythegreatestofthem。TherearenearerapproachestomodernmetaphysicsinthePhilebusandintheSophist； thePoliticusorStatesmanismoreideal；theformandinstitutionsoftheStatearemoreclearlydrawnoutintheLaws；asworksofart，theSymposiumandtheProtagorasareofhigherexcellence。ButnootherDialogueofPlatohasthesamelargenessofviewandthesameperfectionofstyle；noothershowsanequalknowledgeoftheworld，orcontainsmoreofthosethoughtswhicharenewaswellasold，andnotofoneageonlybutofall。NowhereinPlatoisthereadeeperironyoragreaterwealthofhumororimagery，ormoredramaticpower。 Norinanyotherofhiswritingsistheattemptmadetointerweavelifeandspeculation，ortoconnectpoliticswithphilosophy。TheRepublicisthecentrearoundwhichtheotherDialoguesmaybegrouped；herephilosophyreachesthehighestpointtowhichancientthinkerseverattained。PlatoamongtheGreeks，likeBaconamongthemoderns，wasthefirstwhoconceivedamethodofknowledge，althoughneitherofthemalwaysdistinguishedthebareoutlineorformfromthesubstanceoftruth；andbothofthemhadtobecontentwithanabstractionofsciencewhichwasnotyetrealized。Hewasthegreatestmetaphysicalgeniuswhomtheworldhasseen；andinhim，morethaninanyotherancientthinker，thegermsoffutureknowledgearecontained。Thesciencesoflogicandpsychology，whichhavesuppliedsomanyinstrumentsofthoughttoafter—ages，arebasedupontheanalysesofSocratesandPlato。Theprinciplesofdefinition，thelawofcontradiction，thefallacyofarguinginacircle，thedistinctionbetweentheessenceandaccidentsofathingornotion，betweenmeansandends，betweencausesandconditions；alsothedivisionofthemindintotherational，concupiscent，andirascibleelements，orofpleasuresanddesiresintonecessaryandunnecessary——theseandothergreatformsofthoughtareallofthemtobefoundintheRepublic，andwereprobablyfirstinventedbyPlato。Thegreatestofalllogicaltruths，andtheoneofwhichwritersonphilosophyaremostapttolosesight，thedifferencebetweenwordsandthings，hasbeenmoststrenuouslyinsistedonbyhim，althoughhehasnotalwaysavoidedtheconfusionoftheminhisownwritings。 Buthedoesnotbinduptruthinlogicalformulae，——logicisstillveiledinmetaphysics；andthesciencewhichheimaginesto\"contemplatealltruthandallexistence\"isveryunlikethedoctrineofthesyllogismwhichAristotleclaimstohavediscovered。 NeithermustweforgetthattheRepublicisbutthethirdpartofastilllargerdesignwhichwastohaveincludedanidealhistoryofAthens，aswellasapoliticalandphysicalphilosophy。ThefragmentoftheCritiashasgivenbirthtoaworld—famousfiction，secondonlyinimportancetothetaleofTroyandthelegendofArthur；andissaidasafacttohaveinspiredsomeoftheearlynavigatorsofthesixteenthcentury。Thismythicaltale，ofwhichthesubjectwasahistoryofthewarsoftheAtheniansagainsttheIslandofAtlantis，issupposedtobefoundeduponanunfinishedpoemofSolon，towhichitwouldhavestoodinthesamerelationasthewritingsofthelogographerstothepoemsofHomer。ItwouldhavetoldofastruggleforLiberty，intendedtorepresenttheconflictofPersiaandHellas。WemayjudgefromthenoblecommencementoftheTimaeus，fromthefragmentoftheCritiasitself，andfromthethirdbookoftheLaws，inwhatmannerPlatowouldhavetreatedthishighargument。Wecanonlyguesswhythegreatdesignwasabandoned； perhapsbecausePlatobecamesensibleofsomeincongruityinafictitioushistory，orbecausehehadlosthisinterestinit，orbecauseadvancingyearsforbadethecompletionofit；andwemaypleaseourselveswiththefancythathadthisimaginarynarrativeeverbeenfinished，weshouldhavefoundPlatohimselfsympathizingwiththestruggleforHellenicindependence，singingahymnoftriumphoverMarathonandSalamis，perhapsmakingthereflectionofHerodotuswherehecontemplatesthegrowthoftheAthenianempire——\"Howbraveathingisfreedomofspeech，whichhasmadetheAthenianssofarexceedeveryotherstateofHellasingreatness！\"or，moreprobably，attributingthevictorytotheancientgoodorderofAthensandtothefavorofApolloandAthene。 Again，Platomayberegardedasthe\"captain\"（’arhchegoz’）orleaderofagoodlybandoffollowers；forintheRepublicistobefoundtheoriginalofCicero’sDeRepublica，ofSt。Augustine’sCityofGod，oftheUtopiaofSirThomasMore，andofthenumerousotherimaginaryStateswhichareframeduponthesamemodel。TheextenttowhichAristotleortheAristotelianschoolwereindebtedtohiminthePoliticshasbeenlittlerecognized，andtherecognitionisthemorenecessarybecauseitisnotmadebyAristotlehimself。Thetwophilosophershadmoreincommonthantheywereconsciousof；andprobablysomeelementsofPlatoremainstillundetectedinAristotle。InEnglishphilosophytoo，manyaffinitiesmaybetraced，notonlyintheworksoftheCambridgePlatonists，butingreatoriginalwriterslikeBerkeleyorColeridge，toPlatoandhisideas。 Thatthereisatruthhigherthanexperience，ofwhichthemindbearswitnesstoherself，isaconvictionwhichinourowngenerationhasbeenenthusiasticallyasserted，andisperhapsgainingground。OftheGreekauthorswhoattheRenaissancebroughtanewlifeintotheworldPlatohashadthegreatestinfluence。TheRepublicofPlatoisalsothefirsttreatiseuponeducation，ofwhichthewritingsofMiltonandLocke，Rousseau，JeanPaul，andGoethearethelegitimatedescendants。LikeDanteorBunyan，hehasarevelationofanotherlife；likeBacon，heisprofoundlyimpressedwiththeununityofknowledge；intheearlyChurchheexercisedarealinfluenceontheology，andattheRevivalofLiteratureonpolitics。Eventhefragmentsofhiswordswhen\"repeatedatsecond—hand\"haveinallagesravishedtheheartsofmen，whohaveseenreflectedinthemtheirownhighernature。Heisthefatherofidealisminphilosophy，inpolitics，inliterature。Andmanyofthelatestconceptionsofmodernthinkersandstatesmen，suchastheunityofknowledge，thereignoflaw，andtheequalityofthesexes，havebeenanticipatedinadreambyhim。 ARGUMENT TheargumentoftheRepublicisthesearchafterJustice，thenatureofwhichisfirsthintedatbyCephalus，thejustandblamelessoldman——thendiscussedonthebasisofproverbialmoralitybySocratesandPolemarchus——thencaricaturedbyThrasymachusandpartiallyexplainedbySocrates——reducedtoanabstractionbyGlauconandAdeimantus，andhavingbecomeinvisibleintheindividualreappearsatlengthintheidealStatewhichisconstructedbySocrates。Thefirstcareoftherulersistobeeducation，ofwhichanoutlineisdrawnaftertheoldHellenicmodel，providingonlyforanimprovedreligionandmorality，andmoresimplicityinmusicandgymnastic，amanlierstrainofpoetry，andgreaterharmonyoftheindividualandtheState。WearethusledontotheconceptionofahigherState，inwhich\"nomancallsanythinghisown，\"andinwhichthereisneither\"marryingnorgivinginmarriage，\"and\"kingsarephilosophers\"and\"philosophersarekings；\"andthereisanotherandhighereducation，intellectualaswellasmoralandreligious，ofscienceaswellasofart，andnotofyouthonlybutofthewholeoflife。SuchaStateishardlytoberealizedinthisworldandwouldquicklydegenerate。Totheperfectidealsucceedsthegovernmentofthesoldierandtheloverofhonor，thisagaindecliningintodemocracy，anddemocracyintotyranny，inanimaginarybutregularorderhavingnotmuchresemblancetotheactualfacts。When\"thewheelhascomefullcircle\"wedonotbeginagainwithanewperiodofhumanlife；butwehavepassedfromthebesttotheworst，andthereweend。 ThesubjectisthenchangedandtheoldquarrelofpoetryandphilosophywhichhadbeenmorelightlytreatedintheearlierbooksoftheRepublicisnowresumedandfoughtouttoaconclusion。Poetryisdiscoveredtobeanimitationthriceremovedfromthetruth，andHomer，aswellasthedramaticpoets，havingbeencondemnedasanimitator，issentintobanishmentalongwiththem。AndtheideaoftheStateissupplementedbytherevelationofafuturelife。 Thedivisionintobooks，likeallsimilardivisions，isprobablylaterthantheageofPlato。Thenaturaldivisionsarefiveinnumber； ——（1）BookIandthefirsthalfofBookIIdowntotheparagraphbeginning，\"IhadalwaysadmiredthegeniusofGlauconandAdeimantus，\"whichisintroductory；thefirstbookcontainingarefutationofthepopularandsophisticalnotionsofjustice，andconcluding，likesomeoftheearlierDialogues，withoutarrivingatanydefiniteresult。Tothisisappendedarestatementofthenatureofjusticeaccordingtocommonopinion，andananswerisdemandedtothequestion——Whatisjustice，strippedofappearances？Theseconddivision（2）includestheremainderofthesecondandthewholeofthethirdandfourthbooks，whicharemainlyoccupiedwiththeconstructionofthefirstStateandthefirsteducation。Thethirddivision（3）consistsofthefifth，sixth，andseventhbooks，inwhichphilosophyratherthanjusticeisthesubjectofinquiry，andthesecondStateisconstructedonprinciplesofcommunismandruledbyphilosophers，andthecontemplationoftheideaofgoodtakestheplaceofthesocialandpoliticalvirtues。Intheeighthandninthbooks（4）theperversionsofStatesandoftheindividualswhocorrespondtothemarereviewedinsuccession；andthenatureofpleasureandtheprincipleoftyrannyarefurtheranalyzedintheindividualman。Thetenthbook（5）istheconclusionofthewhole，inwhichtherelationsofphilosophytopoetryarefinallydetermined，andthehappinessofthecitizensinthislife，whichhasnowbeenassured，iscrownedbythevisionofanother。 Oramoregeneraldivisionintotwopartsmaybeadopted；thefirst（BooksI—IV）containingthedescriptionofaStateframedgenerallyinaccordancewithHellenicnotionsofreligionandmorality，whileinthesecond（BooksV—X）theHellenicStateistransformedintoanidealkingdomofphilosophy，ofwhichallothergovernmentsaretheperversions。Thesetwopointsofviewarereallyopposed，andtheoppositionisonlyveiledbythegeniusofPlato。TheRepublic，likethePhaedrus，isanimperfectwhole；thehigherlightofphilosophybreaksthroughtheregularityoftheHellenictemple，whichatlastfadesawayintotheheavens。Whetherthisimperfectionofstructurearisesfromanenlargementoftheplan；orfromtheimperfectreconcilementinthewriter’sownmindofthestrugglingelementsofthoughtwhicharenowfirstbroughttogetherbyhim；or，perhaps，fromthecompositionoftheworkatdifferenttimes——arequestions，likethesimilarquestionabouttheIliadandtheOdyssey，whichareworthasking，butwhichcannothaveadistinctanswer。IntheageofPlatotherewasnoregularmodeofpublication，andanauthorwouldhavethelessscrupleinalteringoraddingtoaworkwhichwasknownonlytoafewofhisfriends。 Thereisnoabsurdityinsupposingthathemayhavelaidhislaborsasideforatime，orturnedfromoneworktoanother；andsuchinterruptionswouldbemorelikelytooccurinthecaseofalongthanofashortwriting。InallattemptstodeterminethechronologicalheorderofthePlatonicwritingsoninternalevidence，thisuncertaintyaboutanysingleDialoguebeingcomposedatonetimeisadisturbingelement，whichmustbeadmittedtoaffectlongerworks，suchastheRepublicandtheLaws，morethanshorterones。But，ontheotherhand，theseemingdiscrepanciesoftheRepublicmayonlyariseoutofthediscordantelementswhichthephilosopherhasattemptedtouniteinasinglewhole，perhapswithoutbeinghimselfabletorecognizetheinconsistencywhichisobvioustous。Forthereisajudgmentofafterageswhichfewgreatwritershaveeverbeenabletoanticipateforthemselves。Theydonotperceivethewantofconnectionintheirownwritings，orthegapsintheirsystemswhicharevisibleenoughtothosewhocomeafterthem。Inthebeginningsofliteratureandphilosophy，amidthefirsteffortsofthoughtandlanguage，moreinconsistenciesoccurthannow，whenthepathsofspeculationarewellwornandthemeaningofwordspreciselydefined。Forconsistency，too，isthegrowthoftime；andsomeofthegreatestcreationsofthehumanmindhavebeenwantinginunity。 Triedbythistest，severalofthePlatonicDialogues，accordingtoourmodernideas，appeartobedefective，butthedeficiencyisnoproofthattheywerecomposedatdifferenttimesorbydifferenthands。AndthesuppositionthattheRepublicwaswrittenuninterruptedlyandbyacontinuouseffortisinsomedegreeconfirmedbythenumerousreferencesfromonepartoftheworktoanother。 Thesecondtitle，\"ConcerningJustice，\"isnottheonebywhichtheRepublicisquoted，eitherbyAristotleorgenerallyinantiquity，and，liketheothersecondtitlesofthePlatonicDialogues，maythereforebeassumedtobeoflaterdate。Morgensternandothershaveaskedwhetherthedefinitionofjustice，whichistheprofessedaim，ortheconstructionoftheStateistheprincipalargumentofthework。Theansweris，thatthetwoblendinone，andaretwofacesofthesametruth；forjusticeistheorderoftheState，andtheStateisthevisibleembodimentofjusticeundertheconditionsofhumansociety。Theoneisthesoulandtheotheristhebody，andtheGreekidealoftheState，asoftheindividual，isafairmindinafairbody。InHegelianphraseologytheStateistherealityofwhichjusticeistheideal。Or，describedinChristianlanguage，thekingdomofGodiswithin，andyetdevelopsintoaChurchorexternalkingdom；\"thehousenotmadewithhands，eternalintheheavens，\"isreducedtotheproportionsofanearthlybuilding。Or，touseaPlatonicimage，justiceandtheStatearethewarpandthewoofwhichrunthroughthewholetexture。AndwhentheconstitutionoftheStateiscompleted，theconceptionofjusticeisnotdismissed，butreappearsunderthesameordifferentnamesthroughoutthework，bothastheinnerlawoftheindividualsoul，andfinallyastheprincipleofrewardsandpunishmentsinanotherlife。Thevirtuesarebasedonjustice，ofwhichcommonhonestyinbuyingandsellingistheshadow，andjusticeisbasedontheideaofgood，whichistheharmonyoftheworld，andisreflectedbothintheinstitutionsofStatesandinmotionsoftheheavenlybodies。TheTimaeus，whichtakesupthepoliticalratherthantheethicalsideoftheRepublic，andischieflyoccupiedwithhypothesesconcerningtheoutwardworld，yetcontainsmanyindicationsthatthesamelawissupposedtoreignovertheState，overnature，andoverman。 Toomuch，however，hasbeenmadeofthisquestionbothinancientandinmoderntimes。Thereisastageofcriticisminwhichallworks，whetherofnatureorofart，arereferredtodesign。Nowinancientwritings，andindeedinliteraturegenerally，thereremainsoftenalargeelementwhichwasnotcomprehendedintheoriginaldesign。Fortheplangrowsundertheauthor’shand；newthoughtsoccurtohimintheactofwriting；hehasnotworkedouttheargumenttotheendbeforehebegins。Thereaderwhoseekstofindsomeoneideaunderwhichthewholemaybeconceived，mustnecessarilyseizeonthevaguestandmostgeneral。ThusStallbaum，whoisdissatisfiedwiththeordinaryexplanationsoftheargumentoftheRepublic，imagineshimselftohavefoundthetrueargument\"intherepresentationofhumanlifeinaStateperfectedbyjusticeandgovernedaccordingtotheideaofgood。\"Theremaybesomeuseinsuchgeneraldescriptions，buttheycanhardlybesaidtoexpressthedesignofthewriter。Thetruthis，thatwemayaswellspeakofmanydesignsasofone；norneedanythingbeexcludedfromtheplanofagreatworktowhichthemindisnaturallyledbytheassociationofideas，andwhichdoesnotinterferewiththegeneralpurpose。Whatkindordegreeofunityistobesoughtafterinabuilding，intheplasticarts，inpoetry，inprose，isaproblemwhichhastobedeterminedrelativelytothesubject—matter。ToPlatohimself，theinquiry\"whatwastheintentionofthewriter，\"or\"whatwastheprincipalargumentoftheRepublic\"wouldhavebeenhardlyintelligible，andthereforehadbetterbeatoncedismissed。 IsnottheRepublicthevehicleofthreeorfourgreattruthswhich，toPlato’sownmind，aremostnaturallyrepresentedintheformoftheState？JustasintheJewishprophetsthereignofMessiah，or\"thedayoftheLord，\"orthesufferingServantorpeopleofGod，orthe\"Sunofrighteousnesswithhealinginhiswings\"onlyconvey，tousatleast，theirgreatspiritualideals，sothroughtheGreekStatePlatorevealstoushisownthoughtsaboutdivineperfection，whichistheideaofgood——likethesuninthevisibleworld；——abouthumanperfection，whichisjustice——abouteducationbeginninginyouthandcontinuinginlateryears——aboutpoetsandsophistsandtyrantswhoarethefalseteachersandevilrulersofmankind——about\"theworld\"whichistheembodimentofthem——aboutakingdomwhichexistsnowhereuponearthbutislaidupinheaventobethepatternandruleofhumanlife。Nosuchinspiredcreationisatunitywithitself，anymorethanthecloudsofheavenwhenthesunpiercesthroughthem。Everyshadeoflightanddark，oftruth，andoffictionwhichistheveiloftruth，isallowableinaworkofphilosophicalimagination。Itisnotallonthesameplane；iteasilypassesfromideastomythsandfancies，fromfactstofiguresofspeech。Itisnotprosebutpoetry，atleastagreatpartofit，andoughtnottobejudgedbytherulesoflogicortheprobabilitiesofhistory。Thewriterisnotfashioninghisideasintoanartisticwhole；theytakepossessionofhimandaretoomuchforhim。WehavenoneedthereforetodiscusswhetheraStatesuchasPlatohasconceivedispracticableornot，orwhethertheoutwardformortheinwardlifecamefirstintothemindofthewriter。Forthepracticabilityofhisideashasnothingtodowiththeirtruth； andthehighestthoughtstowhichheattainsmaybetrulysaidtobearthegreatest\"marksofdesign\"——justicemorethantheexternalframe—workoftheState，theideaofgoodmorethanjustice。Thegreatscienceofdialecticortheorganizationofideashasnorealcontent； butisonlyatypeofthemethodorspiritinwhichthehigherknowledgeistobepursuedbythespectatorofalltimeandallexistence。Itisinthefifth，sixth，andseventhbooksthatPlatoreachesthe\"summitofspeculation，\"andthese，althoughtheyfailtosatisfytherequirementsofamodernthinker，maythereforeberegardedasthemostimportant，astheyarealsothemostoriginal，portionsofthework。 ItisnotnecessarytodiscussatlengthaminorquestionwhichhasbeenraisedbyBoeckh，respectingtheimaginarydateatwhichtheconversationwasheld（theyear411B。C。whichisproposedbyhimwilldoaswellasanyother）；forawriteroffiction，andespeciallyawriterwho，likePlato，isnotoriouslycarelessofchronology，onlyaimsatgeneralprobability。WhetherallthepersonsmentionedintheRepubliccouldeverhavemetatanyonetimeisnotadifficultywhichwouldhaveoccurredtoanAthenianreadingtheworkfortyyearslater，ortoPlatohimselfatthetimeofwriting（anymorethantoShakespearerespectingoneofhisowndramas）；andneednotgreatlytroubleusnow。Yetthismaybeaquestionhavingnoanswer\"whichisstillworthasking，\"becausetheinvestigationshowsthatwecannotarguehistoricallyfromthedatesinPlato；itwouldbeuselessthereforetowastetimeininventingfar—fetchedreconcilementsoftheminorderavoidchronologicaldifficulties，such，forexample，astheconjectureofC。F。Hermann，thatGlauconandAdeimantusarenotthebrothersbuttheunclesofPlato，orthefancyofStallbaumthatPlatointentionallyleftanachronismsindicatingthedatesatwhichsomeofhisDialogueswerewritten。 CHARACTERS TheprincipalcharactersintheRepublicareCephalus，Polemarchus，Thrasymachus，Socrates，Glaucon，andAdeimantus。Cephalusappearsintheintroductiononly，Polemarchusdropsattheendofthefirstargument，andThrasymachusisreducedtosilenceatthecloseofthefirstbook。ThemaindiscussioniscarriedonbySocrates，Glaucon，andAdeimantus。AmongthecompanyareLysias（theorator）andEuthydemus，thesonsofCephalusandbrothersofPolemarchus，anunknownCharmantides——thesearemuteauditors；alsothereisCleitophon，whoonceinterrupts，where，asintheDialoguewhichbearshisname，heappearsasthefriendandallyofThrasymachus。 Cephalus，thepatriarchofhouse，hasbeenappropriatelyengagedinofferingasacrifice。Heisthepatternofanoldmanwhohasalmostdonewithlife，andisatpeacewithhimselfandwithallmankind。Hefeelsthatheisdrawingnearertotheworldbelow，andseemstolingeraroundthememoryofthepast。HeiseagerthatSocratesshouldcometovisithim，fondofthepoetryofthelastgeneration，happyintheconsciousnessofawell—spentlife，gladathavingescapedfromthetyrannyofyouthfullusts。Hisloveofconversation，hisaffection，hisindifferencetoriches，evenhisgarrulity，areinterestingtraitsofcharacter。Heisnotoneofthosewhohavenothingtosay，becausetheirwholemindhasbeenabsorbedinmakingmoney。Yetheacknowledgesthatricheshavetheadvantageofplacingmenabovethetemptationtodishonestyorfalsehood。TherespectfulattentionshowntohimbySocrates，whoseloveofconversation，nolessthanthemissionimposeduponhimbytheOracle，leadshimtoaskquestionsofallmen，youngandoldalike，shouldalsobenoted。WhobettersuitedtoraisethequestionofjusticethanCephalus，whoselifemightseemtobetheexpressionofit？ThemoderationwithwhicholdageispicturedbyCephalusasaverytolerableportionofexistenceischaracteristic，notonlyofhim，butofGreekfeelinggenerally，andcontrastswiththeexaggerationofCicerointheDeSenectute。TheeveningoflifeisdescribedbyPlatointhemostexpressivemanner，yetwiththefewestpossibletouches。AsCiceroremarks（Ep。adAttic。iv。16），theagedCephaluswouldhavebeenoutofplaceinthediscussionwhichfollows，andwhichhecouldneitherhaveunderstoodnortakenpartinwithoutaviolationofdramaticpropriety。 His\"sonandheir\"Polemarchushasthefranknessandimpetuousnessofyouth；heisfordetainingSocratesbyforceintheopeningscene，andwillnot\"lethimoff\"onthesubjectofwomenandchildren。LikeCephalus，heislimitedinhispointofview，andrepresentstheproverbialstageofmoralitywhichhasrulesofliferatherthanprinciples；andhequotesSimonidesashisfatherhadquotedPindar。Butafterthishehasnomoretosay；theanswerswhichhemakesareonlyelicitedfromhimbythedialecticofSocrates。HehasnotyetexperiencedtheinfluenceoftheSophistslikeGlauconandAdeimantus，norishesensibleofthenecessityofrefutingthem；hebelongstothepre—Socraticorpre—dialecticalage。Heisincapableofarguing，andisbewilderedbySocratestosuchadegreethathedoesnotknowwhatheissaying。Heismadetoadmitthatjusticeisathief，andthatthevirtuesfollowtheanalogyofthearts。FromhisbrotherLysiaswelearnthathefellavictimtotheThirtyTyrants，butnoallusionisheremadetohisfate，nortothecircumstancethatCephalusandhisfamilywereofSyracusanorigin，andhadmigratedfromThuriitoAthens。 The\"Chalcedoniangiant，\"Thrasymachus，ofwhomwehavealreadyheardinthePhaedrus，isthepersonificationoftheSophists，accordingtoPlato’sconceptionofthem，insomeoftheirworstcharacteristics。Heisvainandblustering，refusingtodiscourseunlessheispaid，fondofmakinganoration，andhopingtherebytoescapetheinevitableSocrates；butamerechildinargument，andunabletoforeseethatthenext\"move\"（touseaPlatonicexpression）will\"shuthimup。\"Hehasreachedthestageofframinggeneralnotions，andinthisrespectisinadvanceofCephalusandPolemarchus。Butheisincapableofdefendingtheminadiscussion，andvainlytriestocoverhisconfusioninbanterandinsolence。 WhethersuchdoctrinesasareattributedtohimbyPlatowerereallyheldeitherbyhimorbyanyotherSophistisuncertain；intheinfancyofphilosophyseriouserrorsaboutmoralitymighteasilygrowup——theyarecertainlyputintothemouthsofspeakersinThucydides；butweareconcernedatpresentwithPlato’sdescriptionofhim，andnotwiththehistoricalreality。Theinequalityofthecontestaddsgreatlytothehumorofthescene。ThepompousandemptySophistisutterlyhelplessinthehandsofthegreatmasterofdialectic，whoknowshowtotouchallthespringsofvanityandweaknessinhim。HeisgreatlyirritatedbytheironyofSocrates，buthisnoisyandimbecilerageonlylayshimmoreandmoreopentothethrustsofhisassailant。Hisdeterminationtocramdowntheirthroats，orput\"bodilyintotheirsouls\"hisownwords，elicitsacryofhorrorfromSocrates。Thestateofhistemperisquiteasworthyofremarkastheprocessoftheargument。Nothingismoreamusingthanhiscompletesubmissionwhenhehasbeenoncethoroughlybeaten。Atfirstheseemstocontinuethediscussionwithreluctance，butsoonwithapparentgood—will，andheeventestifieshisinterestatalaterstagebyoneortwooccasionalremarks。WhenattackedbyGlauconheishumorouslyprotectedbySocrates\"asonewhohasneverbeenhisenemyandisnowhisfriend。\"FromCiceroandQuintilianandfromAristotle’sRhetoricwelearnthattheSophistwhomPlatohasmadesoridiculouswasamanofnotewhosewritingswerepreservedinlaterages。TheplayonhisnamewhichwasmadebyhiscontemporaryHerodicus，\"thouwasteverboldinbattle，\"seemstoshowthatthedescriptionofhimisnotdevoidofverisimilitude。