Itmaybequestionedwhetheritistruethatnosubstanceisrelative，asseemstobethecase，orwhetherexceptionistobemadeinthecaseofcertainsecondarysubstances。Withregardtoprimarysubstances，itisquitetruethatthereisnosuchpossibility，forneitherwholesnorpartsofprimarysubstancesarerelative。Theindividualmanoroxisnotdefinedwithreferencetosomethingexternal。Similarlywiththeparts：aparticularhandorheadisnotdefinedasaparticularhandorheadofaparticularperson，butasthehandorheadofaparticularperson。Itistruealso，forthemostpartatleast，inthecaseofsecondarysubstances；
thespecies\'man\'andthespecies\'ox\'arenotdefinedwithreferencetoanythingoutsidethemselves。Wood，again，isonlyrelativeinsofarasitissomeone\'sproperty，notinsofarasitiswood。Itisplain，then，thatinthecasesmentionedsubstanceisnotrelative。Butwithregardtosomesecondarysubstancesthereisadifferenceofopinion；thus，suchtermsas\'head\'and\'hand\'aredefinedwithreferencetothatofwhichthethingsindicatedareapart，andsoitcomesaboutthattheseappeartohavearelativecharacter。Indeed，ifourdefinitionofthatwhichisrelativewascomplete，itisverydifficult，ifnotimpossible，toprovethatnosubstanceisrelative。If，however，ourdefinitionwasnotcomplete，ifthosethingsonlyareproperlycalledrelativeinthecaseofwhichrelationtoanexternalobjectisanecessaryconditionofexistence，perhapssomeexplanationofthedilemmamaybefound。
Theformerdefinitiondoesindeedapplytoallrelatives，butthefactthatathingisexplainedwithreferencetosomethingelsedoesnotmakeitessentiallyrelative。
Fromthisitisplainthat，ifamandefinitelyapprehendsarelativething，hewillalsodefinitelyapprehendthattowhichitisrelative。Indeedthisisself-evident：forifamanknowsthatsomeparticularthingisrelative，assumingthatwecallthatarelativeinthecaseofwhichrelationtosomethingisanecessaryconditionofexistence，heknowsthatalsotowhichitisrelated。Forifhedoesnotknowatallthattowhichitisrelated，hewillnotknowwhetherornotitisrelative。Thisisclear，moreover，inparticularinstances。Ifamanknowsdefinitelythatsuchandsuchathingis\'double\'，hewillalsoforthwithknowdefinitelythatofwhichitisthedouble。Forifthereisnothingdefiniteofwhichheknowsittobethedouble，hedoesnotknowatallthatitisdouble。Again，ifheknowsthatathingismorebeautiful，itfollowsnecessarilythathewillforthwithdefinitelyknowthatalsothanwhichitismorebeautiful。Hewillnotmerelyknowindefinitelythatitismorebeautifulthansomethingwhichislessbeautiful，forthiswouldbesupposition，notknowledge。Forifhedoesnotknowdefinitelythatthanwhichitismorebeautiful，hecannolongerclaimtoknowdefinitelythatitismorebeautifulthansomethingelsewhichislessbeautiful：foritmightbethatnothingwaslessbeautiful。Itis，therefore，evidentthatifamanapprehendssomerelativethingdefinitely，henecessarilyknowsthatalsodefinitelytowhichitisrelated。
Nowthehead，thehand，andsuchthingsaresubstances，anditispossibletoknowtheiressentialcharacterdefinitely，butitdoesnotnecessarilyfollowthatweshouldknowthattowhichtheyarerelated。
Itisnotpossibletoknowforthwithwhoseheadorhandismeant。Thusthesearenotrelatives，and，thisbeingthecase，itwouldbetruetosaythatnosubstanceisrelativeincharacter。Itisperhapsadifficultmatter，insuchcases，tomakeapositivestatementwithoutmoreexhaustiveexamination，buttohaveraisedquestionswithregardtodetailsisnotwithoutadvantage。
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By\'quality\'Imeanthatinvirtueofwhichpeoplearesaidtobesuchandsuch。
Qualityisatermthatisusedinmanysenses。Onesortofqualityletuscall\'habit\'or\'disposition\'。Habitdiffersfromdispositioninbeingmorelastingandmorefirmlyestablished。Thevariouskindsofknowledgeandofvirtuearehabits，forknowledge，evenwhenacquiredonlyinamoderatedegree，is，itisagreed，abidinginitscharacteranddifficulttodisplace，unlesssomegreatmentalupheavaltakesplace，throughdiseaseoranysuchcause。Thevirtues，also，suchasjustice，self-restraint，andsoon，arenoteasilydislodgedordismissed，soastogiveplacetovice。
Byadisposition，ontheotherhand，wemeanaconditionthatiseasilychangedandquicklygivesplacetoitsopposite。Thus，heat，cold，disease，health，andsoonaredispositions。Foramanisdisposedinonewayoranotherwithreferencetothese，butquicklychanges，becomingcoldinsteadofwarm，illinsteadofwell。Soitiswithallotherdispositionsalso，unlessthroughlapseoftimeadispositionhasitselfbecomeinveterateandalmostimpossibletodislodge：inwhichcaseweshouldperhapsgosofarastocallitahabit。
Itisevidentthatmeninclinetocallthoseconditionshabitswhichareofamoreorlesspermanenttypeanddifficulttodisplace；forthosewhoarenotretentiveofknowledge，butvolatile，arenotsaidtohavesuchandsucha\'habit\'asregardsknowledge，yettheyaredisposed，wemaysay，eitherbetterorworse，towardsknowledge。
Thushabitdiffersfromdispositioninthis，thatwhilethelatterinephemeral，theformerispermanentanddifficulttoalter。
Habitsareatthesametimedispositions，butdispositionsarenotnecessarilyhabits。Forthosewhohavesomespecifichabitmaybesaidalso，invirtueofthathabit，tobethusorthusdisposed；butthosewhoaredisposedinsomespecificwayhavenotinallcasesthecorrespondinghabit。
Anothersortofqualityisthatinvirtueofwhich，forexample，wecallmengoodboxersorrunners，orhealthyorsickly：infactitincludesallthosetermswhichrefertoinborncapacityorincapacity。
Suchthingsarenotpredicatedofapersoninvirtueofhisdisposition，butinvirtueofhisinborncapacityorincapacitytodosomethingwitheaseortoavoiddefeatofanykind。Personsarecalledgoodboxersorgoodrunners，notinvirtueofsuchandsuchadisposition，butinvirtueofaninborncapacitytoaccomplishsomethingwithease。Menarecalledhealthyinvirtueoftheinborncapacityofeasyresistancetothoseunhealthyinfluencesthatmayordinarilyarise；unhealthy，invirtueofthelackofthiscapacity。
Similarlywithregardtosoftnessandhardness。Hardnessispredicatedofathingbecauseithasthatcapacityofresistancewhichenablesittowithstanddisintegration；softness，again，ispredicatedofathingbyreasonofthelackofthatcapacity。
Athirdclasswithinthiscategoryisthatofaffectivequalitiesandaffections。Sweetness，bitterness，sourness，areexamplesofthissortofquality，togetherwithallthatisakintothese；heat，moreover，andcold，whiteness，andblacknessareaffectivequalities。Itisevidentthatthesearequalities，forthosethingsthatpossessthemarethemselvessaidtobesuchandsuchbyreasonoftheirpresence。Honeyiscalledsweetbecauseitcontainssweetness；
thebodyiscalledwhitebecauseitcontainswhiteness；andsoinallothercases。
Theterm\'affectivequality\'isnotusedasindicatingthatthosethingswhichadmitthesequalitiesareaffectedinanyway。Honeyisnotcalledsweetbecauseitisaffectedinaspecificway，noristhiswhatismeantinanyotherinstance。Similarlyheatandcoldarecalledaffectivequalities，notbecausethosethingswhichadmitthemareaffected。Whatismeantisthatthesesaidqualitiesarecapableofproducingan\'affection\'inthewayofperception。Forsweetnesshasthepowerofaffectingthesenseoftaste；heat，thatoftouch；andsoitiswiththerestofthesequalities。
Whitenessandblackness，however，andtheothercolours，arenotsaidtobeaffectivequalitiesinthissense，but-becausetheythemselvesaretheresultsofanaffection。Itisplainthatmanychangesofcolourtakeplacebecauseofaffections。Whenamanisashamed，heblushes；whenheisafraid，hebecomespale，andsoon。Sotrueisthis，thatwhenamanisbynatureliabletosuchaffections，arisingfromsomeconcomitanceofelementsinhisconstitution，itisaprobableinferencethathehasthecorrespondingcomplexionofskin。Forthesamedispositionofbodilyelements，whichintheformerinstancewasmomentarilypresentinthecaseofanaccessofshame，mightbearesultofaman\'snaturaltemperament，soastoproducethecorrespondingcolouringalsoasanaturalcharacteristic。Allconditions，therefore，ofthiskind，ifcausedbycertainpermanentandlastingaffections，arecalledaffectivequalities。Forpallorandduskinessofcomplexionarecalledqualities，inasmuchaswearesaidtobesuchandsuchinvirtueofthem，notonlyiftheyoriginateinnaturalconstitution，butalsoiftheycomeaboutthroughlongdiseaseorsunburn，andaredifficulttoremove，orindeedremainthroughoutlife。Forinthesamewaywearesaidtobesuchandsuchbecauseofthese。
Thoseconditions，however，whicharisefromcauseswhichmayeasilyberenderedineffectiveorspeedilyremoved，arecalled，notqualities，butaffections：forwearenotsaidtobesuchvirtueofthem。Themanwhoblushesthroughshameisnotsaidtobeaconstitutionalblusher，noristhemanwhobecomespalethroughfearsaidtobeconstitutionallypale。Heissaidrathertohavebeenaffected。
Thussuchconditionsarecalledaffections，notqualities。
Inlikemannerthereareaffectivequalitiesandaffectionsofthesoul。Thattemperwithwhichamanisbornandwhichhasitsoriginincertaindeep-seatedaffectionsiscalledaquality。Imeansuchconditionsasinsanity，irascibility，andsoon：forpeoplearesaidtobemadorirascibleinvirtueofthese。Similarlythoseabnormalpsychicstateswhicharenotinborn，butarisefromtheconcomitanceofcertainotherelements，andaredifficulttoremove，oraltogetherpermanent，arecalledqualities，forinvirtueofthemmenaresaidtobesuchandsuch。
Those，however，whicharisefromcauseseasilyrenderedineffectivearecalledaffections，notqualities。Supposethatamanisirritablewhenvexed：heisnotevenspokenofasabad-temperedman，wheninsuchcircumstancesheloseshistempersomewhat，butratherissaidtobeaffected。Suchconditionsarethereforetermed，notqualities，butaffections。
Thefourthsortofqualityisfigureandtheshapethatbelongstoathing；andbesidesthis，straightnessandcurvednessandanyotherqualitiesofthistype；eachofthesedefinesathingasbeingsuchandsuch。Becauseitistriangularorquadrangularathingissaidtohaveaspecificcharacter，oragainbecauseitisstraightorcurved；infactathing\'sshapeineverycasegivesrisetoaqualificationofit。
Rarityanddensity，roughnessandsmoothness，seemtobetermsindicatingquality：yetthese，itwouldappear，reallybelongtoaclassdifferentfromthatofquality。Foritisratheracertainrelativepositionofthepartscomposingthethingthusqualifiedwhich，itappears，isindicatedbyeachoftheseterms。Athingisdense，owingtothefactthatitspartsarecloselycombinedwithoneanother；rare，becausethereareintersticesbetweentheparts；
smooth，becauseitspartslie，sotospeak，evenly；rough，becausesomepartsprojectbeyondothers。
Theremaybeothersortsofquality，butthosethataremostproperlysocalledhave，wemaysafelysay，beenenumerated。
These，then，arequalities，andthethingsthattaketheirnamefromthemasderivatives，orareinsomeotherwaydependentonthem，aresaidtobequalifiedinsomespecificway。Inmost，indeedinalmostallcases，thenameofthatwhichisqualifiedisderivedfromthatofthequality。Thustheterms\'whiteness\'，\'grammar\'，\'justice\'，giveustheadjectives\'white\'，\'grammatical\'，\'just\'，andsoon。
Therearesomecases，however，inwhich，asthequalityunderconsiderationhasnoname，itisimpossiblethatthosepossessedofitshouldhaveanamethatisderivative。Forinstance，thenamegiventotherunnerorboxer，whoissocalledinvirtueofaninborncapacity，isnotderivedfromthatofanyquality；forlobthosecapacitieshavenonameassignedtothem。Inthis，theinborncapacityisdistinctfromthescience，withreferencetowhichmenarecalled，e。g。
boxersorwrestlers。Suchascienceisclassedasadisposition；ithasaname，andiscalled\'boxing\'or\'wrestling\'asthecasemaybe，andthenamegiventothosedisposedinthiswayisderivedfromthatofthescience。Sometimes，eventhoughanameexistsforthequality，thatwhichtakesitscharacterfromthequalityhasanamethatisnotaderivative。Forinstance，theuprightmantakeshischaracterfromthepossessionofthequalityofintegrity，butthenamegivenhimisnotderivedfromtheword\'integrity\'。Yetthisdoesnotoccuroften。
Wemaythereforestatethatthosethingsaresaidtobepossessedofsomespecificqualitywhichhaveanamederivedfromthatoftheaforesaidquality，orwhichareinsomeotherwaydependentonit。
Onequalitymaybethecontraryofanother；thusjusticeisthecontraryofinjustice，whitenessofblackness，andsoon。Thethings，also，whicharesaidtobesuchandsuchinvirtueofthesequalities，maybecontrarytheonetotheother；forthatwhichisunjustiscontrarytothatwhichisjust，thatwhichiswhitetothatwhichisblack。This，however，isnotalwaysthecase。Red，yellow，andsuchcolours，thoughqualities，havenocontraries。
Ifoneoftwocontrariesisaquality，theotherwillalsobeaquality。Thiswillbeevidentfromparticularinstances，ifweapplythenamesusedtodenotetheothercategories；forinstance，grantedthatjusticeisthecontraryofinjusticeandjusticeisaquality，injusticewillalsobeaquality：neitherquantity，norrelation，norplace，norindeedanyothercategorybutthatofquality，willbeapplicableproperlytoinjustice。Soitiswithallothercontrariesfallingunderthecategoryofquality。
Qualitiesadmitofvariationofdegree。Whitenessispredicatedofonethinginagreaterorlessdegreethanofanother。Thisisalsothecasewithreferencetojustice。Moreover，oneandthesamethingmayexhibitaqualityinagreaterdegreethanitdidbefore：ifathingiswhite，itmaybecomewhiter。
Thoughthisisgenerallythecase，thereareexceptions。Forifweshouldsaythatjusticeadmittedofvariationofdegree，difficultiesmightensue，andthisistruewithregardtoallthosequalitieswhicharedispositions。Therearesome，indeed，whodisputethepossibilityofvariationhere。Theymaintainthatjusticeandhealthcannotverywelladmitofvariationofdegreethemselves，butthatpeoplevaryinthedegreeinwhichtheypossessthesequalities，andthatthisisthecasewithgrammaticallearningandallthosequalitieswhichareclassedasdispositions。Howeverthatmaybe，itisanincontrovertiblefactthatthethingswhichinvirtueofthesequalitiesaresaidtobewhattheyarevaryinthedegreeinwhichtheypossessthem；foronemanissaidtobebetterversedingrammar，ormorehealthyorjust，thananother，andsoon。
Thequalitiesexpressedbytheterms\'triangular\'and\'quadrangular\'
donotappeartoadmitofvariationofdegree，norindeeddoanythathavetodowithfigure。Forthosethingstowhichthedefinitionofthetriangleorcircleisapplicableareallequallytriangularorcircular。Those，ontheotherhand，towhichthesamedefinitionisnotapplicable，cannotbesaidtodifferfromoneanotherindegree；thesquareisnomoreacirclethantherectangle，fortoneitheristhedefinitionofthecircleappropriate。
Inshort，ifthedefinitionofthetermproposedisnotapplicabletobothobjects，theycannotbecompared。Thusitisnotallqualitieswhichadmitofvariationofdegree。
WhereasnoneofthecharacteristicsIhavementionedarepeculiartoquality，thefactthatlikenessandunlikenesscanbepredicatedwithreferencetoqualityonly，givestothatcategoryitsdistinctivefeature。Onethingislikeanotheronlywithreferencetothatinvirtueofwhichitissuchandsuch；thusthisformsthepeculiarmarkofquality。
Wemustnotbedisturbedbecauseitmaybearguedthat，thoughproposingtodiscussthecategoryofquality，wehaveincludedinitmanyrelativeterms。Wedidsaythathabitsanddispositionswererelative。Inpracticallyallsuchcasesthegenusisrelative，theindividualnot。Thusknowledge，asagenus，isexplainedbyreferencetosomethingelse，forwemeanaknowledgeofsomething。Butparticularbranchesofknowledgearenotthusexplained。Theknowledgeofgrammarisnotrelativetoanythingexternal，noristheknowledgeofmusic，butthese，ifrelativeatall，arerelativeonlyinvirtueoftheirgenera；thusgrammarissaidbetheknowledgeofsomething，notthegrammarofsomething；similarlymusicistheknowledgeofsomething，notthemusicofsomething。
Thusindividualbranchesofknowledgearenotrelative。Anditisbecausewepossesstheseindividualbranchesofknowledgethatwearesaidtobesuchandsuch。Itisthesethatweactuallypossess：wearecalledexpertsbecausewepossessknowledgeinsomeparticularbranch。Thoseparticularbranches，therefore，ofknowledge，invirtueofwhichwearesometimessaidtobesuchandsuch，arethemselvesqualities，andarenotrelative。Further，ifanythingshouldhappentofallwithinboththecategoryofqualityandthatofrelation，therewouldbenothingextraordinaryinclassingitunderboththeseheads。
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Actionandaffectionbothadmitofcontrariesandalsoofvariationofdegree。Heatingisthecontraryofcooling，beingheatedofbeingcooled，beinggladofbeingvexed。Thustheyadmitofcontraries。Theyalsoadmitofvariationofdegree：foritispossibletoheatinagreaterorlessdegree；alsotobeheatedinagreaterorlessdegree。Thusactionandaffectionalsoadmitofvariationofdegree。Somuch，then，isstatedwithregardtothesecategories。
Wespoke，moreover，ofthecategoryofpositionwhenweweredealingwiththatofrelation，andstatedthatsuchtermsderivedtheirnamesfromthoseofthecorrespondingattitudes。
Asfortherest，time，place，state，sincetheyareeasilyintelligible，Isaynomoreaboutthemthanwassaidatthebeginning，thatinthecategoryofstateareincludedsuchstatesas\'shod\'，\'armed\'，inthatofplace\'intheLyceum\'andsoon，aswasexplainedbefore。
10
Theproposedcategorieshave，then，beenadequatelydealtwith。
Wemustnextexplainthevarioussensesinwhichtheterm\'opposite\'
isused。Thingsaresaidtobeopposedinfoursenses：（i）ascorrelativestooneanother，（ii）ascontrariestooneanother，（iii）asprivativestopositives，（iv）asaffirmativestonegatives。
Letmesketchmymeaninginoutline。Aninstanceoftheuseoftheword\'opposite\'withreferencetocorrelativesisaffordedbytheexpressions\'double\'and\'half\'；withreferencetocontrariesby\'bad\'
and\'good\'。Oppositesinthesenseof\'privatives\'and\'positives\'
are\'blindness\'and\'sight\'；inthesenseofaffirmativesandnegatives，thepropositions\'hesits\'，\'hedoesnotsit\'。
（i）Pairsofoppositeswhichfallunderthecategoryofrelationareexplainedbyareferenceoftheonetotheother，thereferencebeingindicatedbythepreposition\'of\'orbysomeotherpreposition。Thus，doubleisarelativeterm，forthatwhichisdoubleisexplainedasthedoubleofsomething。Knowledge，again，istheoppositeofthethingknown，inthesamesense；andthethingknownalsoisexplainedbyitsrelationtoitsopposite，knowledge。Forthethingknownisexplainedasthatwhichisknownbysomething，thatis，byknowledge。Suchthings，then，asareoppositetheonetotheotherinthesenseofbeingcorrelativesareexplainedbyareferenceoftheonetotheother。
（ii）Pairsofoppositeswhicharecontrariesarenotinanywayinterdependent，butarecontrarytheonetotheother。Thegoodisnotspokenofasthegoodofthehad，butasthecontraryofthebad，noriswhitespokenofasthewhiteoftheblack，butasthecontraryoftheblack。Thesetwotypesofoppositionarethereforedistinct。Thosecontrarieswhicharesuchthatthesubjectsinwhichtheyarenaturallypresent，orofwhichtheyarepredicated，mustnecessarilycontaineithertheoneortheotherofthem，havenointermediate，butthoseinthecaseofwhichnosuchnecessityobtains，alwayshaveanintermediate。Thusdiseaseandhealtharenaturallypresentinthebodyofananimal，anditisnecessarythateithertheoneortheothershouldbepresentinthebodyofananimal。Oddandeven，again，arepredicatedofnumber，anditisnecessarythattheoneortheothershouldbepresentinnumbers。
Nowthereisnointermediatebetweenthetermsofeitherofthesetwopairs。Ontheotherhand，inthosecontrarieswithregardtowhichnosuchnecessityobtains，wefindanintermediate。Blacknessandwhitenessarenaturallypresentinthebody，butitisnotnecessarythateithertheoneortheothershouldbepresentinthebody，inasmuchasitisnottruetosaythateverybodymustbewhiteorblack。Badnessandgoodness，again，arepredicatedofman，andofmanyotherthings，butitisnotnecessarythateithertheonequalityortheothershouldbepresentinthatofwhichtheyarepredicated：itisnottruetosaythateverythingthatmaybegoodorbadmustbeeithergoodorbad。Thesepairsofcontrarieshaveintermediates：
theintermediatesbetweenwhiteandblackaregrey，sallow，andalltheothercoloursthatcomebetween；theintermediatebetweengoodandbadisthatwhichisneithertheonenortheother。
Someintermediatequalitieshavenames，suchasgreyandsallowandalltheothercoloursthatcomebetweenwhiteandblack；inothercases，however，itisnoteasytonametheintermediate，butwemustdefineitasthatwhichisnoteitherextreme，asinthecaseofthatwhichisneithergoodnorbad，neitherjustnorunjust。
（iii）\'privatives\'and\'Positives\'havereferencetothesamesubject。Thus，sightandblindnesshavereferencetotheeye。Itisauniversalrulethateachofapairofoppositesofthistypehasreferencetothattowhichtheparticular\'positive\'isnatural。Wesaythatthatiscapableofsomeparticularfacultyorpossessionhassufferedprivationwhenthefacultyorpossessioninquestionisinnowaypresentinthatinwhich，andatthetimeatwhich，itshouldnaturallybepresent。Wedonotcallthattoothlesswhichhasnotteeth，orthatblindwhichhasnotsight，butratherthatwhichhasnotteethorsightatthetimewhenbynatureitshould。Fortherearesomecreatureswhichfrombirtharewithoutsight，orwithoutteeth，butthesearenotcalledtoothlessorblind。
Tobewithoutsomefacultyortopossessitisnotthesameasthecorresponding\'privative\'or\'positive\'。\'Sight\'isa\'positive\'，\'blindness\'a\'privative\'，but\'topossesssight\'isnotequivalentto\'sight\'，\'tobeblind\'isnotequivalentto\'blindness\'。Blindnessisa\'privative\'，tobeblindistobeinastateofprivation，butisnota\'privative\'。Moreover，if\'blindness\'wereequivalentto\'beingblind\'，bothwouldbepredicatedofthesamesubject；butthoughamanissaidtobeblind，heisbynomeanssaidtobeblindness。
Tobeinastateof\'possession\'is，itappears，theoppositeofbeinginastateof\'privation\'，justas\'positives\'and\'privatives\'themselvesareopposite。Thereisthesametypeofantithesisinbothcases；forjustasblindnessisopposedtosight，soisbeingblindopposedtohavingsight。
Thatwhichisaffirmedordeniedisnotitselfaffirmationordenial。By\'affirmation\'wemeananaffirmativeproposition，by\'denial\'anegative。Now，thosefactswhichformthematteroftheaffirmationordenialarenotpropositions；yetthesetwoaresaidtobeopposedinthesamesenseastheaffirmationanddenial，forinthiscasealsothetypeofantithesisisthesame。Forastheaffirmationisopposedtothedenial，asinthetwopropositions\'hesits\'，\'hedoesnotsit\'，soalsothefactwhichconstitutesthematterofthepropositioninonecaseisopposedtothatintheother，hissitting，thatistosay，tohisnotsitting。
Itisevidentthat\'positives\'and\'privatives\'arenotopposedeachtoeachinthesamesenseasrelatives。Theoneisnotexplainedbyreferencetotheother；sightisnotsightofblindness，norisanyotherprepositionusedtoindicatetherelation。Similarlyblindnessisnotsaidtobeblindnessofsight，butrather，privationofsight。Relatives，moreover，reciprocate；ifblindness，therefore，werearelative，therewouldbeareciprocityofrelationbetweenitandthatwithwhichitwascorrelative。Butthisisnotthecase。Sightisnotcalledthesightofblindness。
Thatthosetermswhichfallundertheheadsof\'positives\'and\'privatives\'arenotopposedeachtoeachascontraries，either，isplainfromthefollowingfacts：Ofapairofcontrariessuchthattheyhavenointermediate，oneortheothermustneedsbepresentinthesubjectinwhichtheynaturallysubsist，orofwhichtheyarepredicated；foritisthose，asweproved，\'inthecaseofwhichthisnecessityobtains，thathavenointermediate。Moreover，wecitedhealthanddisease，oddandeven，asinstances。Butthosecontrarieswhichhaveanintermediatearenotsubjecttoanysuchnecessity。Itisnotnecessarythateverysubstance，receptiveofsuchqualities，shouldbeeitherblackorwhite，coldorhot，forsomethingintermediatebetweenthesecontrariesmayverywellbepresentinthesubject。Weproved，moreover，thatthosecontrarieshaveanintermediateinthecaseofwhichthesaidnecessitydoesnotobtain。Yetwhenoneofthetwocontrariesisaconstitutivepropertyofthesubject，asitisaconstitutivepropertyoffiretobehot，ofsnowtobewhite，itisnecessarydeterminatelythatoneofthetwocontraries，notoneortheother，shouldbepresentinthesubject；forfirecannotbecold，orsnowblack。Thus，itisnotthecaseherethatoneofthetwomustneedsbepresentineverysubjectreceptiveofthesequalities，butonlyinthatsubjectofwhichtheoneformsaconstitutiveproperty。Moreover，insuchcasesitisonememberofthepairdeterminately，andnoteithertheoneortheother，whichmustbepresent。
Inthecaseof\'positives\'and\'privatives\'，ontheotherhand，neitheroftheaforesaidstatementsholdsgood。Foritisnotnecessarythatasubjectreceptiveofthequalitiesshouldalwayshaveeithertheoneortheother；thatwhichhasnotyetadvancedtothestatewhensightisnaturalisnotsaideithertobeblindortosee。Thus\'positives\'and\'privatives\'donotbelongtothatclassofcontrarieswhichconsistsofthosewhichhavenointermediate。Ontheotherhand，theydonotbelongeithertothatclasswhichconsistsofcontrarieswhichhaveanintermediate。Forundercertainconditionsitisnecessarythateithertheoneortheothershouldformpartoftheconstitutionofeveryappropriatesubject。Forwhenathinghasreachedthestagewhenitisbynaturecapableofsight，itwillbesaideithertoseeortobeblind，andthatinanindeterminatesense，signifyingthatthecapacitymaybeeitherpresentorabsent；foritisnotnecessaryeitherthatitshouldseeorthatitshouldbeblind，butthatitshouldbeeitherintheonestateorintheother。Yetinthecaseofthosecontrarieswhichhaveanintermediatewefoundthatitwasnevernecessarythateithertheoneortheothershouldbepresentineveryappropriatesubject，butonlythatincertainsubjectsoneofthepairshouldbepresent，andthatinadeterminatesense。Itis，therefore，plainthat\'positives\'and\'privatives\'arenotopposedeachtoeachineitherofthesensesinwhichcontrariesareopposed。
Again，inthecaseofcontraries，itispossiblethatthereshouldbechangesfromeitherintotheother，whilethesubjectretainsitsidentity，unlessindeedoneofthecontrariesisaconstitutivepropertyofthatsubject，asheatisoffire。Foritispossiblethatthatthatwhichishealthyshouldbecomediseased，thatwhichiswhite，black，thatwhichiscold，hot，thatwhichisgood，bad，thatwhichisbad，good。Thebadman，ifheisbeingbroughtintoabetterwayoflifeandthought，maymakesomeadvance，howeverslight，andifheshouldonceimprove，eveneversolittle，itisplainthathemightchangecompletely，oratanyratemakeverygreatprogress；
foramanbecomesmoreandmoreeasilymovedtovirtue，howeversmalltheimprovementwasatfirst。Itis，therefore，naturaltosupposethathewillmakeyetgreaterprogressthanhehasmadeinthepast；andasthisprocessgoeson，itwillchangehimcompletelyandestablishhiminthecontrarystate，providedheisnothinderedbylackoftime。Inthecaseof\'positives\'and\'privatives\'，however，changeinbothdirectionsisimpossible。Theremaybeachangefrompossessiontoprivation，butnotfromprivationtopossession。Themanwhohasbecomeblinddoesnotregainhissight；themanwhohasbecomebalddoesnotregainhishair；themanwhohaslosthisteethdoesnotgrowhisgrowanewset。（iv）Statementsopposedasaffirmationandnegationbelongmanifestlytoaclasswhichisdistinct，forinthiscase，andinthiscaseonly，itisnecessaryfortheoneoppositetobetrueandtheotherfalse。
Neitherinthecaseofcontraries，norinthecaseofcorrelatives，norinthecaseof\'positives\'and\'privatives\'，isitnecessaryforonetobetrueandtheotherfalse。Healthanddiseasearecontraries：neitherofthemistrueorfalse。\'Double\'and\'half\'areopposedtoeachotherascorrelatives：neitherofthemistrueorfalse。Thecaseisthesame，ofcourse，withregardto\'positives\'and\'privatives\'suchas\'sight\'and\'blindness\'。Inshort，wherethereisnosortofcombinationofwords，truthandfalsityhavenoplace，andalltheoppositeswehavementionedsofarconsistofsimplewords。
Atthesametime，whenthewordswhichenterintoopposedstatementsarecontraries，these，morethananyothersetofopposites，wouldseemtoclaimthischaracteristic。\'Socratesisill\'isthecontraryof\'Socratesiswell\'，butnotevenofsuchcompositeexpressionsisittruetosaythatoneofthepairmustalwaysbetrueandtheotherfalse。ForifSocratesexists，onewillbetrueandtheotherfalse，butifhedoesnotexist，bothwillbefalse；forneither\'Socratesisill\'nor\'Socratesiswell\'istrue，ifSocratesdoesnotexistatall。
Inthecaseof\'positives\'and\'privatives\'，ifthesubjectdoesnotexistatall，neitherpropositionistrue，butevenifthesubjectexists，itisnotalwaysthefactthatoneistrueandtheotherfalse。For\'Socrateshassight\'istheoppositeof\'Socratesisblind\'
inthesenseoftheword\'opposite\'whichappliestopossessionandprivation。NowifSocratesexists，itisnotnecessarythatoneshouldbetrueandtheotherfalse，forwhenheisnotyetabletoacquirethepowerofvision，botharefalse，asalsoifSocratesisaltogethernon-existent。
Butinthecaseofaffirmationandnegation，whetherthesubjectexistsornot，oneisalwaysfalseandtheothertrue。Formanifestly，ifSocratesexists，oneofthetwopropositions\'Socratesisill\'，\'Socratesisnotill\'，istrue，andtheotherfalse。Thisislikewisethecaseifhedoesnotexist；forifhedoesnotexist，tosaythatheisillisfalse，tosaythatheisnotillistrue。Thusitisinthecaseofthoseoppositesonly，whichareoppositeinthesenseinwhichthetermisusedwithreferencetoaffirmationandnegation，thattheruleholdsgood，thatoneofthepairmustbetrueandtheotherfalse。
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Thatthecontraryofagoodisanevilisshownbyinduction：thecontraryofhealthisdisease，ofcourage，cowardice，andsoon。Butthecontraryofanevilissometimesagood，sometimesanevil。Fordefect，whichisanevil，hasexcessforitscontrary，thisalsobeinganevil，andthemean。whichisagood，isequallythecontraryoftheoneandoftheother。Itisonlyinafewcases，however，thatweseeinstancesofthis：inmost，thecontraryofanevilisagood。
Inthecaseofcontraries，itisnotalwaysnecessarythatifoneexiststheothershouldalsoexist：forifallbecomehealthytherewillbehealthandnodisease，andagain，ifeverythingturnswhite，therewillbewhite，butnoblack。Again，sincethefactthatSocratesisillisthecontraryofthefactthatSocratesiswell，andtwocontraryconditionscannotbothobtaininoneandthesameindividualatthesametime，boththesecontrariescouldnotexistatonce：forifthatSocrateswaswellwasafact，thenthatSocrateswasillcouldnotpossiblybeone。
Itisplainthatcontraryattributesmustneedsbepresentinsubjectswhichbelongtothesamespeciesorgenus。Diseaseandhealthrequireastheirsubjectthebodyofananimal；whiteandblackrequireabody，withoutfurtherqualification；justiceandinjusticerequireastheirsubjectthehumansoul。
Moreover，itisnecessarythatpairsofcontrariesshouldinallcaseseitherbelongtothesamegenusorbelongtocontrarygeneraorbethemselvesgenera。Whiteandblackbelongtothesamegenus，colour；justiceandinjustice，tocontrarygenera，virtueandvice；
whilegoodandevildonotbelongtogenera，butarethemselvesactualgenera，withtermsunderthem。
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Therearefoursensesinwhichonethingcanbesaidtobe\'prior\'
toanother。Primarilyandmostproperlythetermhasreferencetotime：inthissensethewordisusedtoindicatethatonethingisolderormoreancientthananother，fortheexpressions\'older\'and\'moreancient\'implygreaterlengthoftime。
Secondly，onethingissaidtobe\'prior\'toanotherwhenthesequenceoftheirbeingcannotbereversed。Inthissense\'one\'is\'prior\'to\'two\'。Forif\'two\'exists，itfollowsdirectlythat\'one\'mustexist，butif\'one\'exists，itdoesnotfollownecessarilythat\'two\'exists：thusthesequencesubsistingcannotbereversed。Itisagreed，then，thatwhenthesequenceoftwothingscannotbereversed，thenthatoneonwhichtheotherdependsiscalled\'prior\'tothatother。
Inthethirdplace，theterm\'prior\'isusedwithreferencetoanyorder，asinthecaseofscienceandoforatory。Forinscienceswhichusedemonstrationthereisthatwhichispriorandthatwhichisposteriorinorder；ingeometry，theelementsarepriortothepropositions；inreadingandwriting，thelettersofthealphabetarepriortothesyllables。Similarly，inthecaseofspeeches，theexordiumispriorinordertothenarrative。
Besidesthesesensesoftheword，thereisafourth。Thatwhichisbetterandmorehonourableissaidtohaveanaturalpriority。Incommonparlancemenspeakofthosewhomtheyhonourandloveas\'comingfirst\'withthem。Thissenseofthewordisperhapsthemostfar-fetched。
Such，then，arethedifferentsensesinwhichtheterm\'prior\'isused。
Yetitwouldseemthatbesidesthosementionedthereisyetanother。
Forinthosethings，thebeingofeachofwhichimpliesthatoftheother，thatwhichisinanywaythecausemayreasonablybesaidtobebynature\'prior\'totheeffect。Itisplainthatthereareinstancesofthis。Thefactofthebeingofamancarrieswithitthetruthofthepropositionthatheis，andtheimplicationisreciprocal：forifamanis，thepropositionwhereinweallegethatheistrue，andconversely，ifthepropositionwhereinweallegethatheistrue，thenheis。Thetrueproposition，however，isinnowaythecauseofthebeingoftheman，butthefactoftheman\'sbeingdoesseemsomehowtobethecauseofthetruthoftheproposition，forthetruthorfalsityofthepropositiondependsonthefactoftheman\'sbeingornotbeing。
Thustheword\'prior\'maybeusedinfivesenses。
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Theterm\'simultaneous\'isprimarilyandmostappropriatelyappliedtothosethingsthegenesisoftheoneofwhichissimultaneouswiththatoftheother；forinsuchcasesneitherispriororposteriortotheother。Suchthingsaresaidtobesimultaneousinpointoftime。Thosethings，again，are\'simultaneous\'
inpointofnature，thebeingofeachofwhichinvolvesthatoftheother，whileatthesametimeneitheristhecauseoftheother\'sbeing。Thisisthecasewithregardtothedoubleandthehalf，forthesearereciprocallydependent，since，ifthereisadouble，thereisalsoahalf，andifthereisahalf，thereisalsoadouble，whileatthesametimeneitheristhecauseofthebeingoftheother。
Again，thosespecieswhicharedistinguishedonefromanotherandopposedonetoanotherwithinthesamegenusaresaidtobe\'simultaneous\'innature。Imeanthosespecieswhicharedistinguishedeachfromeachbyoneandthesamemethodofdivision。
Thusthe\'winged\'speciesissimultaneouswiththe\'terrestrial\'andthe\'water\'species。Thesearedistinguishedwithinthesamegenus，andareopposedeachtoeach，forthegenus\'animal\'hasthe\'winged\'，the\'terrestrial\'，andthe\'water\'species，andnooneoftheseispriororposteriortoanother；onthecontrary，allsuchthingsappeartobe\'simultaneous\'innature。Eachofthesealso，theterrestrial，thewinged，andthewaterspecies，canbedividedagainintosubspecies。Thosespecies，then，alsowillbe\'simultaneous\'pointofnature，which，belongingtothesamegenus，aredistinguishedeachfromeachbyoneandthesamemethodofdifferentiation。
Butgeneraarepriortospecies，forthesequenceoftheirbeingcannotbereversed。Ifthereisthespecies\'water-animal\'，therewillbethegenus\'animal\'，butgrantedthebeingofthegenus\'animal\'，itdoesnotfollownecessarilythattherewillbethespecies\'water-animal\'。
Thosethings，therefore，aresaidtobe\'simultaneous\'innature，thebeingofeachofwhichinvolvesthatoftheother，whileatthesametimeneitherisinanywaythecauseoftheother\'sbeing；
thosespecies，also，whicharedistinguishedeachfromeachandopposedwithinthesamegenus。Thosethings，moreover，are\'simultaneous\'intheunqualifiedsenseofthewordwhichcomeintobeingatthesametime。
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Therearesixsortsofmovement：generation，destruction，increase，diminution，alteration，andchangeofplace。
Itisevidentinallbutonecasethatallthesesortsofmovementaredistincteachfromeach。Generationisdistinctfromdestruction，increaseandchangeofplacefromdiminution，andsoon。Butinthecaseofalterationitmaybearguedthattheprocessnecessarilyimpliesoneorotheroftheotherfivesortsofmotion。
Thisisnottrue，forwemaysaythatallaffections，ornearlyall，produceinusanalterationwhichisdistinctfromallothersortsofmotion，forthatwhichisaffectedneednotsuffereitherincreaseordiminutionoranyoftheothersortsofmotion。Thusalterationisadistinctsortofmotion；for，ifitwerenot，thethingalteredwouldnotonlybealtered，butwouldforthwithnecessarilysufferincreaseordiminutionorsomeoneoftheothersortsofmotioninaddition；whichasamatteroffactisnotthecase。Similarlythatwhichwasundergoingtheprocessofincreaseorwassubjecttosomeothersortofmotionwould，ifalterationwerenotadistinctformofmotion，necessarilybesubjecttoalterationalso。Buttherearesomethingswhichundergoincreasebutyetnotalteration。Thesquare，forinstance，ifagnomonisappliedtoit，undergoesincreasebutnotalteration，andsoitiswithallotherfiguresofthissort。Alterationandincrease，therefore，aredistinct。
Speakinggenerally，restisthecontraryofmotion。Butthedifferentformsofmotionhavetheirowncontrariesinotherforms；
thusdestructionisthecontraryofgeneration，diminutionofincrease，restinaplace，ofchangeofplace。Asforthislast，changeinthereversedirectionwouldseemtobemosttrulyitscontrary；thusmotionupwardsisthecontraryofmotiondownwardsandviceversa。
Inthecaseofthatsortofmotionwhichyetremains，ofthosethathavebeenenumerated，itisnoteasytostatewhatisitscontrary。Itappearstohavenocontrary，unlessoneshoulddefinethecontraryherealsoeitheras\'restinitsquality\'oras\'changeinthedirectionofthecontraryquality\'，justaswedefinedthecontraryofchangeofplaceeitherasrestinaplaceoraschangeinthereversedirection。Forathingisalteredwhenchangeofqualitytakesplace；thereforeeitherrestinitsqualityorchangeinthedirectionofthecontrarymaybecalledthecontraryofthisqualitativeformofmotion。Inthiswaybecomingwhiteisthecontraryofbecomingblack；thereisalterationinthecontrarydirection，sinceachangeofaqualitativenaturetakesplace。
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Theterm\'tohave\'isusedinvarioussenses。Inthefirstplaceitisusedwithreferencetohabitordispositionoranyotherquality，forwearesaidto\'have\'apieceofknowledgeoravirtue。
Then，again，ithasreferencetoquantity，as，forinstance，inthecaseofaman\'sheight；forheissaidto\'have\'aheightofthreeorfourcubits。Itisused，moreover，withregardtoapparel，amanbeingsaidto\'have\'acoatortunic；orinrespectofsomethingwhichwehaveonapartofourselves，asaringonthehand：orinrespectofsomethingwhichisapartofus，ashandorfoot。Thetermrefersalsotocontent，asinthecaseofavesselandwheat，orofajarandwine；ajarissaidto\'have\'wine，andacorn-measurewheat。Theexpressioninsuchcaseshasreferencetocontent。Oritreferstothatwhichhasbeenacquired；wearesaidto\'have\'ahouseorafield。Amanisalsosaidto\'have\'awife，andawifeahusband，andthisappearstobethemostremotemeaningoftheterm，forbytheuseofitwemeansimplythatthehusbandliveswiththewife。
Othersensesofthewordmightperhapsbefound，butthemostordinaryoneshaveallbeenenumerated。
