AnInterpretationBY
CHARLESALEXANDEREASTMAN
（OHIYESA）
TOMYWIFE
ELAINEGOODALEEASTMAN
INGRATEFULRECOGNITIONOFHER
EVER-INSPIRINGCOMPANIONSHIP
INTHOUGHTANDWORK
ANDINLOVEOFHERMOST
INDIAN-LIKEVIRTUES
IDEDICATETHISBOOK
Ispeakforeachno-tonguedtreeThat，springbyspring，dothnoblerbe，AnddumblyandmostwistfullyHismightyprayerfularmsoutspreads，Andhisbigblessingdownwardsheds。
SIDNEYLANIER。
Butthere’sadomeofnoblerspan，AtemplegivenThyfaith，thatbigotsdarenotban——
Itsspaceisheaven！
It’sroofstar-picturedNature’sceiling，Where，trancingtheraptspirit’sfeeling，AndGodHimselftomanrevealing，Th’harmoniousspheresMakemusic，thoughunheardtheirpealingBymortalears！
THOMASCAMPBELL。
God！singyemeadowstreamswithgladsomevoice！
Yepine-groves，withyoursoftandsoul-likesounds！
Yeeagles，playmatesofthemountainstorm！
Yelightnings，thedreadarrowsoftheclouds！
Yesignsandwondersoftheelements，UtterforthGod，andfillthehillswithpraise！……
Earth，withherthousandvoices，praisesGOD！
COLERIDGE。
FOREWORD
\"Wealsohaveareligionwhichwasgiventoourforefathers，andhasbeenhandeddowntoustheirchildren。Itteachesustobethankful，tobeunited，andtoloveoneanother！Weneverquarrelaboutreligion。\"
ThusspokethegreatSenecaorator，RedJacket，inhissuperbreplytoMissionaryCrammorethanacenturyago，andIhaveoftenheardthesamethoughtexpressedbymycountrymen。
IhaveattemptedtopaintthereligiouslifeofthetypicalAmericanIndianasitwasbeforeheknewthewhiteman。I
havelongwishedtodothis，becauseIcannotfindthatithaseverbeenseriously，adequately，andsincerelydone。ThereligionoftheIndianisthelastthingabouthimthatthemanofanotherracewilleverunderstand。
First，theIndiandoesnotspeakofthesedeepmatterssolongashebelievesinthem，andwhenhehasceasedtobelievehespeaksinaccuratelyandslightingly。
Second，evenifhecanbeinducedtospeak，theracialandreligiousprejudiceoftheotherstandsinthewayofhissympatheticcomprehension。
Third，practicallyallexistingstudiesonthissubjecthavebeenmadeduringthetransitionperiod，whentheoriginalbeliefsandphilosophyofthenativeAmericanwerealreadyundergoingrapiddisintegration。
Therearetobefoundhereandtheresuperficialaccountsofstrangecustomsandceremonies，ofwhichthesymbolismorinnermeaningwaslargelyhiddenfromtheobserver；andtherehasbeenagreatdealofmaterialcollectedinrecentyearswhichiswithoutvaluebecauseitismodernandhybrid，inextricablymixedwithBiblicallegendandCaucasianphilosophy。Someofithasevenbeeninventedforcommercialpurposes。GiveareservationIndianapresent，andhewillpossiblyprovideyouwithsacredsongs，amythology，andfolk-loretoorder！
Mylittlebookdoesnotpretendtobeascientifictreatise。
ItisastrueasIcanmakeittomychildhoodteachingandancestralideals，butfromthehuman，nottheethnologicalstandpoint。Ihavenotcaredtopileupmoredrybones，buttoclothethemwithfleshandblood。Somuchashasbeenwrittenbystrangersofourancientfaithandworshiptreatsitchieflyasmatterofcuriosity。Ishouldliketoemphasizeitsuniversalquality，itspersonalappeal！
Thefirstmissionaries，goodmenimbuedwiththenarrownessoftheirage，brandedusaspagansanddevil-worshipers，anddemandedofusthatweabjureourfalsegodsbeforebowingthekneeattheirsacredaltar。Theyeventoldusthatwewereeternallylost，unlessweadoptedatangiblesymbolandprofessedaparticularformoftheirhydra-headedfaith。
Weofthetwentiethcenturyknowbetter！Weknowthatallreligiousaspiration，allsincereworship，canhavebutonesourceandonegoal。WeknowthattheGodoftheletteredandtheunlettered，oftheGreekandthebarbarian，isafterallthesameGod；and，likePeter，weperceivethatHeisnorespecterofpersons，butthatineverynationhethatfearethHimandworkethrighteousnessisacceptabletoHim。
CHARLESA。EASTMAN（OHIYESA）
CONTENTS
I。THEGREATMYSTERY1
II。THEFAMILYALTAR25
III。CEREMONIALANDSYMBOLICWORSHIP51
IV。BARBARISMANDTHEMORALCODE85
V。THEUNWRITTENSCRIPTURES117
VI。ONTHEBORDER-LANDOFSPIRITS147
I
THEGREATMYSTERY
THESOULOFTHEINDIAN
I
THEGREATMYSTERY
SolitaryWorship。TheSavagePhilosopher。TheDualMind。
SpiritualGiftsversusMaterialProgress。TheParadoxof\"ChristianCivilization。\"
TheoriginalattitudeoftheAmericanIndiantowardtheEternal，the\"GreatMystery\"thatsurroundsandembracesus，wasassimpleasitwasexalted。Tohimitwasthesupremeconception，bringingwithitthefullestmeasureofjoyandsatisfactionpossibleinthislife。
Theworshipofthe\"GreatMystery\"wassilent，solitary，freefromallself-seeking。Itwassilent，becauseallspeechisofnecessityfeebleandimperfect；thereforethesoulsofmyancestorsascendedtoGodinwordlessadoration。Itwassolitary，becausetheybelievedthatHeisnearertousinsolitude，andtherewerenopriestsauthorizedtocomebetweenamanandhisMaker。Nonemightexhortorconfessorinanywaymeddlewiththereligiousexperienceofanother。AmongusallmenwerecreatedsonsofGodandstooderect，asconsciousoftheirdivinity。Ourfaithmightnotbeformulatedincreeds，norforceduponanywhowereunwillingtoreceiveit；hencetherewasnopreaching，proselyting，norpersecution，neitherwerethereanyscoffersoratheists。
Therewerenotemplesorshrinesamongussavethoseofnature。Beinganaturalman，theIndianwasintenselypoetical。
HewoulddeemitsacrilegetobuildahouseforHimwhomaybemetfacetofaceinthemysterious，shadowyaislesoftheprimevalforest，oronthesunlitbosomofvirginprairies，upondizzyspiresandpinnaclesofnakedrock，andyonderinthejeweledvaultofthenightsky！HewhoenrobesHimselfinfilmyveilsofcloud，thereontherimofthevisibleworldwhereourGreat-GrandfatherSunkindleshiseveningcamp-fire，Hewhoridesupontherigorouswindofthenorth，orbreathesforthHisspirituponaromaticsouthernairs，whosewar-canoeislauncheduponmajesticriversandinlandseas——Heneedsnolessercathedral！
ThatsolitarycommunionwiththeUnseenwhichwasthehighestexpressionofourreligiouslifeispartlydescribedinthewordbambeday，literally\"mysteriousfeeling，\"whichhasbeenvariouslytranslated\"fasting\"and\"dreaming。\"Itmaybetterbeinterpretedas\"consciousnessofthedivine。\"
Thefirstbambeday，orreligiousretreat，markedanepochinthelifeoftheyouth，whichmaybecomparedtothatofconfirmationorconversioninChristianexperience。Havingfirstpreparedhimselfbymeansofthepurifyingvapor-bath，andcastoffasfaraspossibleallhumanorfleshlyinfluences，theyoungmansoughtoutthenoblestheight，themostcommandingsummitinallthesurroundingregion。KnowingthatGodsetsnovalueuponmaterialthings，hetookwithhimnoofferingsorsacrificesotherthansymbolicobjects，suchaspaintsandtobacco。WishingtoappearbeforeHiminallhumility，heworenoclothingsavehismoccasinsandbreech-clout。Atthesolemnhourofsunriseorsunsethetookuphisposition，overlookingthegloriesofearthandfacingthe\"GreatMystery，\"andthereheremained，naked，erect，silent，andmotionless，exposedtotheelementsandforcesofHisarming，foranightandadaytotwodaysandnights，butrarelylonger。Sometimeshewouldchantahymnwithoutwords，oroffertheceremonial\"filledpipe。\"InthisholytranceorecstasytheIndianmysticfoundhishighesthappinessandthemotivepowerofhisexistence。
Whenhereturnedtothecamp，hemustremainatadistanceuntilhehadagainenteredthevapor-bathandpreparedhimselfforintercoursewithhisfellows。Ofthevisionorsignvouchsafedtohimhedidnotspeak，unlessithadincludedsomecommissionwhichmustbepubliclyfulfilled。Sometimesanoldman，standinguponthebrinkofeternity，mightrevealtoachosenfewtheoracleofhislong-pastyouth。
ThenativeAmericanhasbeengenerallydespisedbyhiswhiteconquerorsforhispovertyandsimplicity。Theyforget，perhaps，thathisreligionforbadetheaccumulationofwealthandtheenjoymentofluxury。Tohim，astoothersingle-mindedmenineveryageandrace，fromDiogenestothebrothersofSaintFrancis，fromtheMontaniststotheShakers，theloveofpossessionshasappearedasnare，andtheburdensofacomplexsocietyasourceofneedlessperilandtemptation。Furthermore，itwastheruleofhislifetosharethefruitsofhisskillandsuccesswithhislessfortunatebrothers。Thushekepthisspiritfreefromtheclogofpride，cupidity，orenvy，andcarriedout，ashebelieved，thedivinedecree——amatterprofoundlyimportanttohim。
Itwasnot，then，whollyfromignoranceorimprovidencethathefailedtoestablishpermanenttownsandtodevelopamaterialcivilization。Totheuntutoredsage，theconcentrationofpopulationwastheprolificmotherofallevils，moralnolessthanphysical。Hearguedthatfoodisgood，whilesurfeitkills；thatloveisgood，butlustdestroys；andnotlessdreadedthanthepestilencefollowinguponcrowdedandunsanitarydwellingswasthelossofspiritualpowerinseparablefromtooclosecontactwithone’sfellow-men。Allwhohavelivedmuchoutofdoorsknowthatthereisamagneticandnervousforcethataccumulatesinsolitudeandthatisquicklydissipatedbylifeinacrowd；andevenhisenemieshaverecognizedthefactthatforacertaininnatepowerandself-poise，whollyindependentofcircumstances，theAmericanIndianisunsurpassedamongmen。
Theredmandividedmindintotwoparts，——thespiritualmindandthephysicalmind。Thefirstispurespirit，concernedonlywiththeessenceofthings，anditwasthishesoughttostrengthenbyspiritualprayer，duringwhichthebodyissubduedbyfastingandhardship。Inthistypeofprayertherewasnobeseechingoffavororhelp。Allmattersofpersonalorselfishconcern，assuccessinhuntingorwarfare，relieffromsickness，orthesparingofabelovedlife，weredefinitelyrelegatedtotheplaneofthelowerormaterialmind，andallceremonies，charms，orincantationsdesignedtosecureabenefitortoavertadanger，wererecognizedasemanatingfromthephysicalself。
Theritesofthisphysicalworship，again，werewhollysymbolic，andtheIndiannomoreworshipedtheSunthantheChristianadorestheCross。TheSunandtheEarth，byanobviousparable，holdingscarcelymoreofpoeticmetaphorthanofscientifictruth，wereinhisviewtheparentsofallorganiclife。
FromtheSun，astheuniversalfather，proceedsthequickeningprincipleinnature，andinthepatientandfruitfulwombofourmother，theEarth，arehiddenembryosofplantsandmen。
Thereforeourreverenceandloveforthemwasreallyanimaginativeextensionofourloveforourimmediateparents，andwiththissentimentoffilialpietywasjoinedawillingnesstoappealtothem，astoafather，forsuchgoodgiftsaswemaydesire。Thisisthematerialorphysicalprayer。
Theelementsandmajesticforcesinnature，Lightning，Wind，Water，Fire，andFrost，wereregardedwithaweasspiritualpowers，butalwayssecondaryandintermediateincharacter。Webelievedthatthespiritpervadesallcreationandthateverycreaturepossessesasoulinsomedegree，thoughnotnecessarilyasoulconsciousofitself。Thetree，thewaterfall，thegrizzlybear，eachisanembodiedForce，andassuchanobjectofreverence。
TheIndianlovedtocomeintosympathyandspiritualcommunionwithhisbrothersoftheanimalkingdom，whoseinarticulatesoulshadforhimsomethingofthesinlesspuritythatweattributetotheinnocentandirresponsiblechild。Hehadfaithintheirinstincts，asinamysteriouswisdomgivenfromabove；andwhilehehumblyacceptedthesupposedlyvoluntarysacrificeoftheirbodiestopreservehisown，hepaidhomagetotheirspiritsinprescribedprayersandofferings。
Ineveryreligionthereisanelementofthesupernatural，varyingwiththeinfluenceofpurereasonoveritsdevotees。TheIndianwasalogicalandclearthinkeruponmatterswithinthescopeofhisunderstanding，buthehadnotyetchartedthevastfieldofnatureorexpressedherwondersintermsofscience。Withhislimitedknowledgeofcauseandeffect，hesawmiraclesoneveryhand，——themiracleoflifeinseedandegg，themiracleofdeathinlightningflashandintheswellingdeep！Nothingofthemarvelouscouldastonishhim；asthatabeastshouldspeak，orthesunstandstill。Thevirginbirthwouldappearscarcelymoremiraculousthanisthebirthofeverychildthatcomesintotheworld，orthemiracleoftheloavesandfishesexcitemorewonderthantheharvestthatspringsfromasingleearofcorn。
Whomaycondemnhissuperstition？SurelynotthedevoutCatholic，orevenProtestantmissionary，whoteachesBiblemiraclesasliteralfact！Thelogicalmanmusteitherdenyallmiraclesornone，andourAmericanIndianmythsandherostoriesareperhaps，inthemselves，quiteascredibleasthoseoftheHebrewsofold。
Ifweareofthemoderntypeofmind，thatseesinnaturallawamajestyandgrandeurfarmoreimpressivethananysolitaryinfractionofitcouldpossiblybe，letusnotforgetthat，afterall，sciencehasnotexplainedeverything。Wehavestilltofacetheultimatemiracle，——theoriginandprincipleoflife！Hereisthesuprememysterythatistheessenceofworship，withoutwhichtherecanbenoreligion，andinthepresenceofthismysteryourattitudecannotbeveryunlikethatofthenaturalphilosopher，whobeholdswithawetheDivineinallcreation。
ItissimpletruththattheIndiandidnot，solongashisnativephilosophyheldswayoverhismind，eitherenvyordesiretoimitatethesplendidachievementsofthewhiteman。Inhisownthoughtherosesuperiortothem！Hescornedthem，evenasaloftyspiritabsorbedinitssterntaskrejectsthesoftbeds，theluxuriousfood，thepleasure-worshipingdallianceofarichneighbor。Itwascleartohimthatvirtueandhappinessareindependentofthesethings，ifnotincompatiblewiththem。
TherewasundoubtedlymuchinprimitiveChristianitytoappealtothisman，andJesus’hardsayingstotherichandabouttherichwouldhavebeenentirelycomprehensibletohim。Yetthereligionthatispreachedinourchurchesandpracticedbyourcongregations，withitselementofdisplayandself-aggrandizement，itsactiveproselytism，anditsopencontemptofallreligionsbutitsown，wasforalongtimeextremelyrepellent。Tohissimplemind，theprofessionalismofthepulpit，thepaidexhorter，themoneyedchurch，wasanunspiritualandunedifyingthing，anditwasnotuntilhisspiritwasbrokenandhismoralandphysicalconstitutionunderminedbytrade，conquest，andstrongdrink，thatChristianmissionariesobtainedanyrealholduponhim。Strangeasitmayseem，itistruethattheproudpaganinhissecretsouldespisedthegoodmenwhocametoconvertandtoenlightenhim！
NorwereitspublicityanditsPhariseeismtheonlyelementsinthealienreligionthatoffendedtheredman。Tohim，itappearedshockingandalmostincrediblethattherewereamongthispeoplewhoclaimedsuperioritymanyirreligious，whodidnotevenpretendtoprofessthenationalfaith。Notonlydidtheynotprofessit，buttheystoopedsolowastoinsulttheirGodwithprofaneandsacrilegiousspeech！InourowntongueHisnamewasnotspokenaloud，evenwithutmostreverence，muchlesslightlyorirreverently。
Morethanthis，eveninthosewhitemenwhoprofessedreligionwefoundmuchinconsistencyofconduct。Theyspokemuchofspiritualthings，whileseekingonlythematerial。Theyboughtandsoldeverything：time，labor，personalindependence，theloveofwoman，andeventheministrationsoftheirholyfaith！Thelustformoney，power，andconquestsocharacteristicoftheAnglo-Saxonracedidnotescapemoralcondemnationatthehandsofhisuntutoredjudge，nordidhefailtocontrastthisconspicuoustraitofthedominantracewiththespiritofthemeekandlowlyJesus。
Hemightintimecometorecognizethatthedrunkardsandlicentiousamongwhitemen，withwhomhetoofrequentlycameincontact，werecondemnedbythewhiteman’sreligionaswell，andmustnotbeheldtodiscreditit。Butitwasnotsoeasytooverlookortoexcusenationalbadfaith。WhendistinguishedemissariesfromtheFatheratWashington，someofthemministersofthegospelandevenbishops，cametotheIndiannations，andpledgedtotheminsolemntreatythenationalhonor，withprayerandmentionoftheirGod；andwhensuchtreaties，somade，werepromptlyandshamelesslybroken，isitstrangethattheactionshouldarousenotonlyanger，butcontempt？ThehistoriansofthewhiteraceadmitthattheIndianwasneverthefirsttorepudiatehisoath。
Itismypersonalbelief，afterthirty-fiveyears’experienceofit，thatthereisnosuchthingas\"Christiancivilization。\"I
believethatChristianityandmoderncivilizationareopposedandirreconcilable，andthatthespiritofChristianityandofourancientreligionisessentiallythesame。
II
THEFAMILYALTAR
THEFAMILYALTAR
Pre-natalInfluence。EarlyReligiousTeaching。TheFunctionoftheAged。Woman，MarriageandtheFamily。Loyalty，Hospitality，Friendship。
TheAmericanIndianwasanindividualistinreligionasinwar。Hehadneitheranationalarmynoranorganizedchurch。Therewasnopriesttoassumeresponsibilityforanother’ssoul。Thatis，webelieved，thesupremedutyoftheparent，whoonlywaspermittedtoclaiminsomedegreethepriestlyofficeandfunction，sinceitishiscreativeandprotectingpowerwhichaloneapproachesthesolemnfunctionofDeity。
TheIndianwasareligiousmanfromhismother’swomb。Fromthemomentofherrecognitionofthefactofconceptiontotheendofthesecondyearoflife，whichwastheordinarydurationoflactation，itwassupposedbyusthatthemother’sspiritualinfluencecountedformost。Herattitudeandsecretmeditationsmustbesuchastoinstillintothereceptivesouloftheunbornchildtheloveofthe\"GreatMystery\"andasenseofbrotherhoodwithallcreation。Silenceandisolationaretheruleoflifefortheexpectantmother。Shewandersprayerfulinthestillnessofgreatwoods，oronthebosomoftheuntroddenprairie，andtoherpoeticmindtheimmanentbirthofherchildprefigurestheadventofamaster-man——ahero，orthemotherofheroes——athoughtconceivedinthevirginbreastofprimevalnature，anddreamedoutinahushthatisonlybrokenbythesighingofthepinetreeorthethrillingorchestraofadistantwaterfall。
Andwhenthedayofdaysinherlifedawns——thedayinwhichthereistobeanewlife，themiracleofwhosemakinghasbeenintrustedtoher，sheseeksnohumanaid。Shehasbeentrainedandpreparedinbodyandmindforthisherholiestduty，eversinceshecanremember。Theordealisbestmetalone，wherenocuriousorpityingeyesembarrassher；whereallnaturesaystoherspirit：\"’Tislove！’tislove！thefulfillingoflife！\"Whenasacredvoicecomestoheroutofthesilence，andapairofeyesopenuponherinthewilderness，sheknowswithjoythatshehasbornewellherpartinthegreatsongofcreation！
Presentlyshereturnstothecamp，carryingthemysterious，theholy，thedearestbundle！Shefeelstheendearingwarmthofitandhearsitssoftbreathing。Itisstillapartofherself，sincebotharenourishedbythesamemouthful，andnolookofalovercouldbesweeterthanitsdeep，trustinggaze。
Shecontinuesherspiritualteaching，atfirstsilently——amerepointingoftheindexfingertonature；theninwhisperedsongs，bird-like，atmorningandevening。Toherandtothechildthebirdsarerealpeople，wholiveveryclosetothe\"GreatMystery\"；themurmuringtreesbreatheHispresence；thefallingwaterschantHispraise。
Ifthechildshouldchancetobefretful，themotherraisesherhand。\"Hush！hush！\"shecautionsittenderly，\"thespiritsmaybedisturbed！\"Shebidsitbestillandlisten——listentothesilvervoiceoftheaspen，ortheclashingcymbalsofthebirch；andatnightshepointstotheheavenly，blazedtrail，throughnature’sgalaxyofsplendortonature’sGod。Silence，love，reverence，——thisisthetrinityoffirstlessons；andtotheseshelateraddsgenerosity，courage，andchastity。
Intheolddays，ourmothersweresingle-eyedtothetrustimposeduponthem；andasanotedchiefofourpeoplewaswonttosay：\"Menmayslayoneanother，buttheycanneverovercomethewoman，forinthequietudeofherlapliesthechild！Youmaydestroyhimonceandagain，butheissuesasoftenfromthatsamegentlelap——agiftoftheGreatGoodtotherace，inwhichmanisonlyanaccomplice！\"
Thiswildmotherhasnotonlytheexperienceofhermotherandgrandmother，andtheacceptedrulesofherpeopleforaguide，butshehumblyseekstolearnalessonfromants，bees，spiders，beavers，andbadgers。Shestudiesthefamilylifeofthebirds，soexquisiteinitsemotionalintensityanditspatientdevotion，untilsheseemstofeeltheuniversalmother-heartbeatinginherownbreast。Induetimethechildtakesofhisownaccordtheattitudeofprayer，andspeaksreverentlyofthePowers。Hethinksthatheisabloodbrothertoalllivingcreatures，andthestormwindistohimamessengerofthe\"GreatMystery。\"
Attheageofabouteightyears，ifheisaboy，sheturnshimovertohisfatherformoreSpartantraining。Ifagirl，sheisfromthistimemuchundertheguardianshipofhergrandmother，whoisconsideredthemostdignifiedprotectorforthemaiden。Indeed，thedistinctiveworkofbothgrandparentsisthatofacquaintingtheyouthwiththenationaltraditionsandbeliefs。Itisreservedforthemtorepeatthetime-hallowedtaleswithdignityandauthority，soastoleadhimintohisinheritanceinthestored-upwisdomandexperienceoftherace。Theoldarededicatedtotheserviceoftheyoung，astheirteachersandadvisers，andtheyounginturnregardthemwithloveandreverence。
Ouroldagewasinsomerespectsthehappiestperiodoflife。
Advancingyearsbroughtwiththemmuchfreedom，notonlyfromtheburdenoflaboriousanddangeroustasks，butfromthoserestrictionsofcustomandetiquettewhichwerereligiouslyobservedbyallothers。NoonewhoisatallacquaintedwiththeIndianinhishomecandenythatweareapolitepeople。Asarule，thewarriorwhoinspiredthegreatestterrorintheheartsofhisenemieswasamanofthemostexemplarygentleness，andalmostfemininerefinement，amonghisfamilyandfriends。Asoft，lowvoicewasconsideredanexcellentthinginman，aswellasinwoman！Indeed，theenforcedintimacyoftentlifewouldsoonbecomeintolerable，wereitnotfortheseinstinctivereservesanddelicacies，thisunfailingrespectfortheestablishedplaceandpossessionsofeveryothermemberofthefamilycircle，thishabitualquiet，order，anddecorum。
Ourpeople，thoughcapableofstronganddurablefeeling，werenotdemonstrativeintheiraffectionatanytime，leastofallinthepresenceofguestsorstrangers。Onlytotheaged，whohavejourneyedfar，andareinamannerexemptfromordinaryrules，arepermittedsomeplayfulfamiliaritieswithchildrenandgrandchildren，someplainspeaking，eventoharshnessandobjurgation，fromwhichtheothersmustrigidlyrefrain。Inshort，theoldmenandwomenareprivilegedtosaywhattheypleaseandhowtheyplease，withoutcontradiction，whilethehardshipsandbodilyinfirmitiesthatofnecessityfalltotheirlotaresoftenedsofarasmaybebyuniversalconsiderationandattention。
Therewasnoreligiousceremonyconnectedwithmarriageamongus，whileontheotherhandtherelationbetweenmanandwomanwasregardedasinitselfmysteriousandholy。Itappearsthatwheremarriageissolemnizedbythechurchandblessedbythepriest，itmayatthesametimebesurroundedwithcustomsandideasofafrivolous，superficial，andevenprurientcharacter。Webelievedthattwowholoveshouldbeunitedinsecret，beforethepublicacknowledgmentoftheirunion，andshouldtastetheirapotheosisalonewithnature。Thebetrothalmightormightnotbediscussedandapprovedbytheparents，butineithercaseitwascustomaryfortheyoungpairtodisappearintothewilderness，theretopasssomedaysorweeksinperfectseclusionanddualsolitude，afterwardreturningtothevillageasmanandwife。
Anexchangeofpresentsandentertainmentsbetweenthetwofamiliesusuallyfollowed，butthenuptialblessingwasgivenbytheHighPriestofGod，themostreverendandholyNature。
Thefamilywasnotonlythesocialunit，butalsotheunitofgovernment。Theclanisnothingmorethanalargerfamily，withitspatriarchalchiefasthenaturalhead，andtheunionofseveralclansbyintermarriageandvoluntaryconnectionconstitutesthetribe。Theverynameofourtribe，Dakota，meansAlliedPeople。
Theremoterdegreesofkinshipwerefullyrecognized，andthatnotasamatterofformonly：firstcousinswereknownasbrothersandsisters；thenameof\"cousin\"constitutedabindingclaim，andourrigidmoralityforbademarriagebetweencousinsinanyknowndegree，orinotherwordswithintheclan。
Thehouseholdproperconsistedofamanwithoneormorewivesandtheirchildren，allofwhomdweltamicablytogether，oftenunderoneroof，althoughsomemenofrankandpositionprovidedaseparatelodgeforeachwife。Therewere，indeed，fewpluralmarriagesexceptamongtheolderandleadingmen，andpluralwiveswereusually，thoughnotnecessarily，sisters。Amarriagemighthonorablybedissolvedforcause，buttherewasverylittleinfidelityorimmorality，eitheropenorsecret。
Ithasbeensaidthatthepositionofwomanisthetestofcivilization，andthatofourwomenwassecure。Inthemwasvestedourstandardofmoralsandthepurityofourblood。Thewifedidnottakethenameofherhusbandnorenterhisclan，andthechildrenbelongedtotheclanofthemother。Allofthefamilypropertywasheldbyher，descentwastracedinthematernalline，andthehonorofthehousewasinherhands。Modestywasherchiefadornment；hencetheyoungerwomenwereusuallysilentandretiring：butawomanwhohadattainedtoripenessofyearsandwisdom，orwhohaddisplayednotablecourageinsomeemergency，wassometimesinvitedtoaseatinthecouncil。
Thussheruledundisputedwithinherowndomain，andwastousatowerofmoralandspiritualstrength，untilthecomingoftheborderwhiteman，thesoldierandtrader，whowithstrongdrinkoverthrewthehonoroftheman，andthroughhispoweroveraworthlesshusbandpurchasedthevirtueofhiswifeorhisdaughter。
Whenshefell，thewholeracefellwithher。
Beforethiscalamitycameuponus，youcouldnotfindanywhereahappierhomethanthatcreatedbytheIndianwoman。Therewasnothingoftheartificialaboutherperson，andverylittledisingenuousnessinhercharacter。Herearlyandconsistenttraining，thedefinitenessofhervocation，and，aboveall，herprofoundlyreligiousattitudegaveherastrengthandpoisethatcouldnotbeovercomebyanyordinarymisfortune。
Indiannameswereeithercharacteristicnicknamesgiveninaplayfulspirit，deednames，birthnames，orsuchashaveareligiousandsymbolicmeaning。Ithasbeensaidthatwhenachildisborn，someaccidentorunusualappearancedetermineshisname。Thisissometimesthecase，butisnottherule。Amanofforciblecharacter，withafinewarrecord，usuallybearsthenameofthebuffaloorbear，lightningorsomedreadnaturalforce。
AnotherofmorepeacefulnaturemaybecalledSwiftBirdorBlueSky。Awoman’snameusuallysuggestedsomethingaboutthehome，oftenwiththeadjective\"pretty\"or\"good，\"andafemininetermination。Namesofanydignityorimportancemustbeconferredbytheoldmen，andespeciallysoiftheyhaveanyspiritualsignificance；asSacredCloud，MysteriousNight，SpiritWoman，andthelike。Suchanamewassometimesbornebythreegenerations，buteachindividualmustprovethatheisworthyofit。
InthelifeoftheIndiantherewasonlyoneinevitableduty，——thedutyofprayer——thedailyrecognitionoftheUnseenandEternal。Hisdailydevotionsweremorenecessarytohimthandailyfood。Hewakesatdaybreak，putsonhismoccasinsandstepsdowntothewater’sedge。Herehethrowshandfulsofclear，coldwaterintohisface，orplungesinbodily。Afterthebath，hestandserectbeforetheadvancingdawn，facingthesunasitdancesuponthehorizon，andoffershisunspokenorison。Hismatemayprecedeorfollowhiminhisdevotions，butneveraccompanieshim。
Eachsoulmustmeetthemorningsun，thenew，sweetearth，andtheGreatSilencealone！
Whenever，inthecourseofthedailyhunt，theredhuntercomesuponascenethatisstrikinglybeautifulorsublime——ablackthundercloudwiththerainbow’sglowingarchabovethemountain；awhitewaterfallintheheartofagreengorge；avastprairietingedwiththeblood-redofsunset——hepausesforaninstantintheattitudeofworship。Heseesnoneedforsettingapartonedayinsevenasaholyday，sincetohimalldaysareGod’s。
Everyactofhislifeis，inaveryrealsense，areligiousact。Herecognizesthespiritinallcreation，andbelievesthathedrawsfromitspiritualpower。Hisrespectfortheimmortalpartoftheanimal，hisbrother，oftenleadshimsofarastolayoutthebodyofhisgameinstateanddecoratetheheadwithsymbolicpaintorfeathers。Thenhestandsbeforeitintheprayerattitude，holdingupthefilledpipe，intokenthathehasfreedwithhonorthespiritofhisbrother，whosebodyhisneedcompelledhimtotaketosustainhisownlife。
Whenfoodistaken，thewomanmurmursa\"grace\"asshelowersthekettle；anactsosoftlyandunobtrusivelyperformedthatonewhodoesnotknowthecustomusuallyfailstocatchthewhisper：\"Spirit，partake！\"Asherhusbandreceivesthebowlorplate，helikewisemurmurshisinvocationtothespirit。Whenhebecomesanoldman，helovestomakeanotableefforttoprovehisgratitude。Hecutsoffthechoicestmorselofthemeatandcastsitintothefire——thepurestandmostetherealelement。
Thehospitalityofthewigwamisonlylimitedbytheinstitutionofwar。Yet，ifanenemyshouldhonoruswithacall，histrustwillnotbemisplaced，andhewillgoawayconvincedthathehasmetwitharoyalhost！Ourhonoristheguaranteeforhissafety，solongasheiswithinthecamp。
Friendshipisheldtobetheseveresttestofcharacter。Itiseasy，wethink，tobeloyaltofamilyandclan，whosebloodisinourownveins。Lovebetweenmanandwomanisfoundedonthematinginstinctandisnotfreefromdesireandself-seeking。Buttohaveafriend，andtobetrueunderanyandalltrials，isthemarkofaman！
Thehighesttypeoffriendshipistherelationof\"brother-friend\"
or\"life-and-deathfriend。\"Thisbondisbetweenmanandman，isusuallyformedinearlyyouth，andcanonlybebrokenbydeath。
Itistheessenceofcomradeshipandfraternallove，withoutthoughtofpleasureorgain，butratherformoralsupportandinspiration。
Eachisvowedtodiefortheother，ifneedbe，andnothingisdeniedthebrother-friend，butneitherisanythingrequiredthatisnotinaccordwiththehighestconceptionsoftheIndianmind。
III
CEREMONIALANDSYMBOLICWORSHIP
ModernPerversionsofEarlyReligiousRites。TheSunDance。TheGreatMedicineLodge。TotemsandCharms。TheVapor-BathandtheCeremonialofthePipe。
ThepublicreligiousritesofthePlainsIndiansarefew，andinlargepartofmodernorigin，belongingproperlytotheso-called\"transitionperiod。\"Thatperiodmustbeheldtobeginwiththefirstinsidiouseffectupontheirmannersandcustomsofcontactwiththedominantrace，andmanyofthetribesweresoinfluencedlongbeforetheyceasedtoleadthenomadiclife。
Thefur-traders，the\"BlackRobe\"priests，themilitary，andfinallytheProtestantmissionaries，werethemenwhobeganthedisintegrationoftheIndiannationsandtheoverthrowoftheirreligion，seventy-fivetoahundredyearsbeforetheywereforcedtoenteruponreservationlife。Wehavenoauthenticstudyofthemuntilwellalonginthetransitionperiod，whenwhiskeyandtradehadalreadydebauchedtheirnativeideals。
Duringtheeraofreconstructiontheymodifiedtheircustomsandbeliefscontinually，creatingasingularadmixtureofChristianwithpagansuperstitions，andanadditiontotheoldfolk-loreofdisguisedBiblestoriesunderanIndianaspect。EventheirmusicshowstheinfluenceoftheCatholicchants。Mostofthematerialcollectedbymodernobserversisnecessarilyofthispromiscuouscharacter。
Itisnoteworthythatthefirsteffectofcontactwiththewhiteswasanincreaseofcrueltyandbarbarity，anintensifyingofthedarkshadowsinthepicture！Inthismannerthe\"SunDance\"ofthePlainsIndians，themostimportantoftheirpublicceremonials，wasabusedandperverteduntilitbecameahorribleexhibitionofbarbarism，andwaseventuallyprohibitedbytheGovernment。
Intheolddays，whenaSiouxwarriorfoundhimselfintheveryjawsofdestruction，hemightofferaprayertohisfather，theSun，toprolonghislife。Ifrescuedfromimminentdanger，hemustacknowledgethedivinefavorbymakingaSunDance，accordingtothevowembracedinhisprayer，inwhichhedeclaredthathedidnotfeartortureordeath，butaskedlifeonlyforthesakeofthosewholovedhim。Thusthephysicalordealwasthefulfillmentofavow，andasortofatonementforwhatmightotherwiseappeartobereprehensibleweaknessinthefaceofdeath。Itwasinthenatureofconfessionandthank-offeringtothe\"GreatMystery，\"throughthephysicalparent，theSun，anddidnotembraceaprayerforfuturefavors。
Theceremoniesusuallytookplacefromsixmonthstoayearafterthemakingofthevow，inordertoadmitofsuitablepreparation；alwaysinmidsummerandbeforealargeandimposinggathering。Theynaturallyincludedthemakingofafeast，andthegivingawayofmuchsavagewealthinhonoroftheoccasion，althoughthesewerenoessentialpartofthereligiousrite。
Whenthedaycametoprocurethepole，itwasbroughtinbyapartyofwarriors，headedbysomemanofdistinction。Thetreeselectedwassixtoeightinchesindiameteratthebase，andtwentytotwenty-fivefeethigh。Itwaschosenandfelledwithsomesolemnity，includingtheceremonyofthe\"filledpipe，\"andwascarriedinthefashionofalitter，symbolizingthebodyofthemanwhomadethedance。Asolitaryteepeewaspitchedonalevelspotatsomedistancefromthevillage，andthepoleraisednearathandwiththesameceremony，inthecentreofacircularenclosureoffresh-cutboughs。
Meanwhile，oneofthemostnotedofouroldmenhadcarvedoutofrawhide，orlaterofwood，twofigures，usuallythoseofamanandabuffalo。Sometimesthefigureofabird，supposedtorepresenttheThunder，wassubstitutedforthebuffalo。Itwascustomarytopaintthemanredandtheanimalblack，andeachwassuspendedfromoneendofthecrossbarwhichwassecurelytiedsometwofeetfromthetopofthepole。Ihaveneverbeenabletodeterminethatthiscrosshadanysignificance；itwasprobablynothingmorethanadramaticcoincidencethatsurmountedtheSun-DancepolewiththesymbolofChristianity。
Thepaintindicatedthatthemanwhowasabouttogivethankspubliclyhadbeenpotentiallydead，butwasallowedtolivebythemysteriousfavorandinterferenceoftheGiverofLife。Thebuffalohungoppositetheimageofhisownbodyindeath，becauseitwasthesupportofhisphysicalself，andaleadingfigureinlegendarylore。Followingthesamelineofthought，whenheemergedfromthesolitarylodgeofpreparation，andapproachedthepoletodance，nudesaveforhisbreechcloutandmoccasins，hishairloosenedanddaubedwithclay，hemustdragafterhimabuffaloskull，representingthegravefromwhichhehadescaped。
Thedancerwascutorscarifiedonthechest，sufficienttodrawbloodandcausepain，thenaturalaccompanimentsofhisfigurativedeath。Hetookhispositionoppositethesingers，facingthepole，anddraggingtheskullbyleatherthongswhichweremerelyfastenedabouthisshoulders。Duringalaterperiod，incisionsweremadeinthebreastorback，sometimesboth，throughwhichwoodenskewersweredrawn，andsecuredbylariatstothepoleortotheskulls。Thushedancedwithoutintermissionforadayandanight，orevenlonger，evergazingatthesuninthedaytime，andblowingfromtimetotimeasacredwhistlemadefromtheboneofagoose’swing。
Inrecenttimes，thisritewasexaggeratedanddistortedintoamereghastlydisplayofphysicalstrengthandenduranceundertorture，almostonalevelwiththeCaucasianinstitutionofthebull-fight，ortheyetmoremodernprize-ring。Moreover，insteadofanatonementorthank-offering，itbecametheaccompanimentofaprayerforsuccessinwar，orinaraiduponthehorsesoftheenemy。Thenumberofdancerswasincreased，andtheyweremadetohangsuspendedfromthepolebytheirownflesh，whichtheymustbreakloosebeforebeingreleased。Iwellrememberthecommentsinourownhomeuponthepassingofthissimplebutimpressiveceremony，anditslossofallmeaningandproprietyunderthedemoralizingadditionswhichweresomeofthefruitsofearlycontactwiththewhiteman。
PerhapsthemostremarkableorganizationeverknownamongAmericanIndians，thatofthe\"GrandMedicineLodge，\"wasapparentlyanindirectresultofthelaborsoftheearlyJesuitmissionaries。InitCaucasianideasareeasilyrecognizable，anditseemsreasonabletosupposethatitsfoundersdesiredtoestablishanorderthatwouldsuccessfullyresisttheencroachmentsofthe\"BlackRobes。\"Howeverthatmaybe，itisanunquestionablefactthattheonlyreligiousleadersofanynotewhohavearisenamongthenativetribessincetheadventofthewhiteman，the\"ShawneeProphet\"in1762，andthehalf-breedprophetofthe\"GhostDance\"in1890，bothfoundedtheirclaimsorpropheciesupontheGospelstory。ThusineachcaseanIndianreligiousrevivalorcraze，thoughmoreorlessthreateningtotheinvader，wasofdistinctivelyalienorigin。
TheMedicineLodgeoriginatedamongtheAlgonquintribe，andextendedgraduallythroughoutitsbranches，finallyaffectingtheSiouxoftheMississippiValley，andformingastrongbulwarkagainsttheworkofthepioneermissionaries，whosecured，indeed，scarcelyanyconvertsuntilaftertheoutbreakof1862，whensubjection，starvation，andimprisonmentturnedourbroken-heartedpeopletoacceptChristianity，whichseemedtoofferthemtheonlygleamofkindnessorhope。
Theorderwasasecretone，andinsomerespectsnotunliketheFreeMasons，beingaunionoraffiliationofanumberoflodges，eachwithitsdistinctivesongsandmedicines。Leadershipwasinorderofseniorityindegrees，whichcouldonlybeobtainedbymerit，andwomenwereadmittedtomembershipuponequalterms，withthepossibilityofattainingtothehighesthonors。
Nopersonmightbecomeamemberunlesshismoralstandingwasexcellent，allcandidatesremainedonprobationforoneortwoyears，andmurderersandadultererswereexpelled。ThecommandmentspromulgatedbythisorderwereessentiallythesameastheMosaicTen，sothatitexertedadistinctmoralinfluence，inadditiontoitsostensibleobject，whichwasinstructioninthesecretsoflegitimatemedicine。
Inthissocietytheusesofallcurativerootsandherbsknowntousweretaughtexhaustivelyandpracticedmainlybytheold，theyoungermembersbeingintrainingtofilltheplacesofthosewhopassedaway。Mygrandmotherwasawell-knownandsuccessfulpractitioner，andbothmymotherandfatherweremembers，butdidnotpractice。
Amedicineor\"mysteryfeast\"wasnotapublicaffair，asmembersonlywereeligible，andupontheseoccasionsallthe\"medicinebags\"andtotemsofthevariouslodgesweredisplayedandtheirpeculiar\"medicinesongs\"weresung。Thefoodwasonlypartakenofbyinvitedguests，andnotbythehosts，orlodgemakingthefeast。The\"GrandMedicineDance\"wasgivenontheoccasionofinitiatingthosecandidateswhohadfinishedtheirprobation，asufficientnumberofwhomweredesignatedtotaketheplacesofthosewhohaddiedsincethelastmeeting。Invitationsweresentoutintheformofsmallbundlesoftobacco。Twoverylargeteepeeswerepitchedfacingoneanother，ahundredfeetapart，halfopen，andconnectedbyarooflesshallorcolonnadeoffresh-cutboughs。Oneoftheselodgeswasforthesocietygivingthedanceandthenovices，theotherwasoccupiedbythe\"soldiers，\"whosedutyitwastodistributetherefreshments，andtokeeporderamongthespectators。Theywereselectedfromamongthebestandbravestwarriorsofthetribe。
Thepreparationsbeingcomplete，andthemembersofeachlodgegarbedandpaintedaccordingtotheirrituals，theyenteredthehallseparately，insinglefile，ledbytheiroldestmanor\"GreatChief。\"Standingbeforethe\"Soldiers’Lodge，\"facingthesettingsun，theirchiefaddressedthe\"GreatMystery\"directlyinafewwords，afterwhichallextendingtherightarmhorizontallyfromtheshoulderwithopenpalm，sangashortinvocationinunison，endingwithadeep：\"E-ho-ho-ho！\"Thisperformance，whichwasreallyimpressive，wasrepeatedinfrontoftheheadquarterslodge，facingtherisingsun，afterwhicheachlodgetookitsassignedplace，andthesongsanddancesfollowedinregularorder。
Theclosingceremony，whichwasintenselydramaticinitscharacter，wastheinitiationofthenovices，whohadreceivedtheirfinalpreparationonthenightbefore。Theywerenowledoutinfrontoftheheadquarterslodgeandplacedinakneelingpositionuponacarpetofrichrobesandfurs，themenupontherighthand，strippedandpaintedblack，witharoundspotofredjustovertheheart，whilethewomen，dressedintheirbest，werearrangedupontheleft。Bothsexesworethehairloose，asifinmourningorexpectationofdeath。Anequalnumberofgrandmedicine-men，eachofwhomwasespeciallyappointedtooneofthenovices，facedthematadistanceofhalfthelengthofthehall，orperhapsfiftyfeet。
Aftersilentprayer，eachmedicine-maninturnaddressedhimselftohischarge，exhortinghimtoobservealltherulesoftheorderundertheeyeoftheMysteriousOne，andinstructinghiminhisdutytowardhisfellow-manandtowardtheRulerofLife。
Allthenassumedanattitudeofsuperbpoweranddignity，crouchingslightlyasifabouttospringforwardinafoot-race，andgraspingtheirmedicinebagsfirmlyinbothhands。Swingingtheirarmsforwardatthesamemoment，theyutteredtheirguttural\"Yo-ho-ho-ho！\"inperfectunisonandwithstartlingeffect。Inthemidstofabreathlesssilence，theytookastepforward，thenanotherandanother，endingarodorsofromtherowofkneelingvictims，withamightyswingofthesacredbagsthatwouldseemtoprojectalltheirmysticpowerintothebodiesoftheinitiates。
Instantlytheyallfellforward，apparentlylifeless。
Withthisthrillingclimax，thedrumswerevigorouslypoundedandthedancebeganagainwithenergy。Afterafewturnshadbeentakenabouttheprostratebodiesofthenewmembers，coveringthemwithfinerobesandothergarmentswhichwerelatertobedistributedasgifts，theywerepermittedtocometolifeandtojoininthefinaldance。Thewholeperformancewasclearlysymbolicofdeathandresurrection。
WhileIcannotsupposethatthiselaborateritual，withitsuseofpublicandaudibleprayer，ofpublicexhortationorsermon，andotherCaucasianfeatures，waspracticedbeforecomparativelymoderntimes，thereisnodoubtthatitwasconscientiouslybelievedinbyitsmembers，andforatimeregardedwithreverencebythepeople。Butatalaterperioditbecamestillfurtherdemoralizedandfellundersuspicionofwitchcraft。
ThereisnodoubtthattheIndianheldmedicineclosetospiritualthings，butinthisalsohehasbeenmuchmisunderstood；
infacteverythingthatheheldsacredisindiscriminatelycalled\"medicine，\"inthesenseofmysteryormagic。Asadoctorhewasoriginallyveryadroitandoftensuccessful。Heemployedonlyhealingbark，roots，andleaveswithwhosepropertieshewasfamiliar，usingthemintheformofadistillationorteaandalwayssingly。Thestomachorinternalbathwasavaluablediscoveryofhis，andthevapororTurkishbathwasingeneraluse。
Hecouldsetabrokenbonewithfairsuccess，butneverpracticedsurgeryinanyform。Inadditiontoallthis，themedicine-manpossessedmuchpersonalmagnetismandauthority，andinhistreatmentoftensoughttoreestablishtheequilibriumofthepatientthroughmentalorspiritualinfluences——asortofprimitivepsychotherapy。
TheSiouxwordforthehealingartis\"wah-pee-yah，\"whichliterallymeansreadjustingormakinganew。\"Pay-jee-hoo-tah，\"
literallyroot，meansmedicine，and\"wakan\"signifiesspiritormystery。Thusthethreeideas，whilesometimesassociated，werecarefullydistinguished。
Itisimportanttorememberthatintheolddaysthe\"medicine-man\"receivednopaymentforhisservices，whichwereofthenatureofanhonorablefunctionoroffice。Whentheideaofpaymentandbarterwasintroducedamongus，andvaluablepresentsorfeesbegantobedemandedfortreatingthesick，theensuinggreedandrivalryledtomanydemoralizingpractices，andintimetotheriseofthemodern\"conjurer，\"whoisgenerallyafraudandtricksterofthegrossestkind。Itisfortunatethathisdayispracticallyover。
