Thereisbutonelawwhich，fromitsnature，needsunanimousconsent。
Thisisthesocialcompact;forcivilassociationisthemostvoluntaryofallacts。Everymanbeingbornfreeandhisownmaster，noone，underanypretextwhatsoever，canmakeanymansubjectwithouthisconsent。Todecidethatthesonofaslaveisbornaslaveistodecidethatheisnotbornaman。
Ifthenthereareopponentswhenthesocialcompactismade，theiroppositiondoesnotinvalidatethecontract，butmerelypreventsthemfrombeingincludedinit。Theyareforeignersamongcitizens。WhentheStateisinstituted，residenceconstitutesconsent;todwellwithinitsterritoryistosubmittotheSovereign。34
Apartfromthisprimitivecontract，thevoteofthemajorityalwaysbindsalltherest。Thisfollowsfromthecontractitself。Butitisaskedhowamancanbebothfreeandforcedtoconformtowillsthatarenothisown。Howaretheopponentsatoncefreeandsubjecttolawstheyhavenotagreedto？
Iretortthatthequestioniswronglyput。Thecitizengiveshisconsenttoallthelaws，includingthosewhicharepassedinspiteofhisopposition，andeventhosewhichpunishhimwhenhedarestobreakanyofthem。TheconstantwillofallthemembersoftheStateisthegeneralwill;byvirtueofittheyarecitizensandfree。35Wheninthepopularassemblyalawisproposed，whatthepeopleisaskedisnotexactlywhetheritapprovesorrejectstheproposal，butwhetheritisinconformitywiththegeneralwill，whichistheirwill。Eachman，ingivinghisvote，stateshisopiniononthatpoint;andthegeneralwillisfoundbycountingvotes。Whenthereforetheopinionthatiscontrarytomyownprevails，thisprovesneithermorenorlessthanthatIwasmistaken，andthatwhatIthoughttobethegeneralwillwasnotso。IfmyparticularopinionhadcarriedthedayIshouldhaveachievedtheoppositeofwhatwasmywill;anditisinthatcasethatIshouldnothavebeenfree。
Thispresupposes，indeed，thatallthequalitiesofthegeneralwillstillresideinthemajority：whentheyceasetodoso，whateversideamanmaytake，libertyisnolongerpossible。
Inmyearlierdemonstrationofhowparticularwillsaresubstitutedforthegeneralwillinpublicdeliberation，Ihaveadequatelypointedoutthepracticablemethodsofavoidingthisabuse;andIshallhavemoretosayofthemlateron。Ihavealsogiventheprinciplesfordeterminingtheproportionalnumberofvotesfordeclaringthatwill。Adifferenceofonevotedestroysequality;asingleopponentdestroysunanimity;butbetweenequalityandunanimity，thereareseveralgradesofunequaldivision，ateachofwhichthisproportionmaybefixedinaccordancewiththeconditionandtheneedsofthebodypolitic。
Therearetwogeneralrulesthatmayservetoregulatethisrelation。
First，themoregraveandimportantthequestionsdiscussed，thenearershouldtheopinionthatistoprevailapproachunanimity。Secondly，themorethematterinhandcallsforspeed，thesmallertheprescribeddifferenceinthenumbersofvotesmaybeallowedtobecome：whereaninstantdecisionhastobereached，amajorityofonevoteshouldbeenough。Thefirstofthesetworulesseemsmoreinharmonywiththelaws，andthesecondwithpracticalaffairs。Inanycase，itisthecombinationofthemthatgivesthebestproportionsfordeterminingthemajoritynecessary。3。ELECTIONSINtheelectionsoftheprinceandthemagistrates，whichare，asIhavesaid，complexacts，therearetwopossiblemethodsofprocedure，choiceandlot。Bothhavebeenemployedinvariousrepublics，andahighlycomplicatedmixtureofthetwostillsurvivesintheelectionoftheDogeatVenice。
\"Electionbylot，\"saysMontesquieu，\"isdemocraticinnature。\"E3Iagreethatitisso;butinwhatsense？\"Thelot，\"hegoeson，\"isawayofmakingchoicethatisunfairtonobody;itleaveseachcitizenareasonablehopeofservinghiscountry。\"Thesearenotreasons。
Ifwebearinmindthattheelectionofrulersisafunctionofgovernment，andnotofSovereignty，weshallseewhythelotisthemethodmorenaturaltodemocracy，inwhichtheadministrationisbetterinproportionasthenumberofitsactsissmall。
Ineveryrealdemocracy，magistracyisnotanadvantage，butaburdensomechargewhichcannotjustlybeimposedononeindividualratherthananother。
Thelawalonecanlaythechargeonhimonwhomthelotfalls。For，theconditionsbeingthenthesameforall，andthechoicenotdependingonanyhumanwill，thereisnoparticularapplicationtoaltertheuniversalityofthelaw。
Inanaristocracy，theprincechoosestheprince，thegovernmentispreservedbyitself，andvotingisrightlyordered。
TheinstanceoftheelectionoftheDogeofVeniceconfirms，insteadofdestroying，thisdistinction;themixedformsuitsamixedgovernment。
ForitisanerrortotakethegovernmentofVeniceforarealaristocracy。
Ifthepeoplehasnoshareinthegovernment，thenobilityisitselfthepeople。AhostofpoorBarnabotesnevergetsnearanymagistracy，anditsnobilityconsistsmerelyintheemptytitleofExcellency，andintherighttositintheGreatCouncil。AsthisGreatCouncilisasnumerousasourGeneralCouncilatGeneva，itsillustriousmembershavenomoreprivilegesthanourplaincitizens。Itisindisputablethat，apartfromtheextremedisparitybetweenthetworepublics，thebourgeoisieofGenevaisexactlyequivalenttothepatriciateofVenice;ournativesandinhabitantscorrespondtothetownsmenandthepeopleofVenice;ourpeasantscorrespondtothesubjectsonthemainland;and，howeverthatrepublicberegarded，ifitssizebeleftoutofaccount，itsgovernmentisnomorearistocraticthanourown。Thewholedifferenceisthat，havingnolife-ruler，wedonot，likeVenice，needtousethelot。
Electionbylotwouldhavefewdisadvantagesinarealdemocracy，inwhich，asequalitywouldeverywhereexistinmoralsandtalentsaswellasinprinciplesandfortunes，itwouldbecomealmostamatterofindifferencewhowaschosen。ButIhavealreadysaidthatarealdemocracyisonlyanideal。
Whenchoiceandlotarecombined，positionsthatrequirespecialtalents，suchasmilitaryposts，shouldbefilledbytheformer;thelatterdoesforcases，suchasjudicialoffices，inwhichgoodsense，justice，andintegrityareenough，becauseinaStatethatiswellconstituted，thesequalitiesarecommontoallthecitizens。
Neitherlotnorvotehasanyplaceinmonarchicalgovernment。Themonarchbeingbyrightsoleprinceandonlymagistrate，thechoiceofhislieutenantsbelongstononebuthim。WhentheAbbédeSaint-PierreproposedthattheCouncilsoftheKingofFranceshouldbemultiplied，andtheirmemberselectedbyballot，hedidnotseethathewasproposingtochangetheformofgovernment。
Ishouldnowspeakofthemethodsofgivingandcountingopinionsintheassemblyofthepeople;butperhapsanaccountofthisaspectoftheRomanconstitutionwillmoreforciblyillustratealltherulesIcouldlaydown。ItisworththewhileofajudiciousreadertofollowinsomedetailtheworkingofpublicandprivateaffairsinaCouncilconsistingoftwohundredthousandmen。4。THEROMANCOMITIAWEarewithoutwell-certifiedrecordsofthefirstperiodofRome’sexistence;itevenappearsveryprobablethatmostofthestoriestoldaboutitarefables;indeed，generallyspeaking，themostinstructivepartofthehistoryofpeoples，thatwhichdealswiththeirfoundation，iswhatwehaveleastof。Experienceteachesuseverydaywhatcausesleadtotherevolutionsofempires;but，asnonewpeoplesarenowformed，wehavealmostnothingbeyondconjecturetogouponinexplaininghowtheywerecreated。
Thecustomswefindestablishedshowatleastthatthesecustomshadanorigin。Thetraditionsthatgobacktothoseorigins，thathavethegreatestauthoritiesbehindthem，andthatareconfirmedbythestrongestproofs，shouldpassforthemostcertain。ThesearetherulesIhavetriedtofollowininquiringhowthefreestandmostpowerfulpeopleonearthexerciseditssupremepower。
AfterthefoundationofRome，thenew-bornrepublic，thatis，thearmyofitsfounder，composedofAlbans，Sabinesandforeigners，wasdividedintothreeclasses，which，fromthisdivision，tookthenameoftribes。Eachofthesetribeswassubdividedintotencuriæ，andeachcuriaintodecuriæ，headedbyleaderscalledcurionesanddecuriones。
Besidesthis，outofeachtribewastakenabodyofonehundredEquitesorKnights，calledacentury，whichshowsthatthesedivisions，beingunnecessaryinatown，wereatfirstmerelymilitary。ButaninstinctforgreatnessseemstohaveledthelittletownshipofRometoprovideitselfinadvancewithapoliticalsystemsuitableforthecapitaloftheworld。
Outofthisoriginaldivisionanawkwardsituationsoonarose。ThetribesoftheAlbans（Ramnenses）andtheSabines（Tatienses）remainedalwaysinthesamecondition，whilethatoftheforeigners（Luceres）continuallygrewasmoreandmoreforeignerscametoliveatRome，sothatitsoonsurpassedtheothersinstrength。Serviusremediedthisdangerousfaultbychangingtheprincipleofcleavage，andsubstitutingfortheracialdivision，whichheabolished，anewonebasedonthequarterofthetowninhabitedbyeachtribe。Insteadofthreetribeshecreatedfour，eachoccupyingandnamedafteroneofthehillsofRome。Thus，whileredressingtheinequalityofthemoment，healsoprovidedforthefuture;andinorderthatthedivisionmightbeoneofpersonsaswellaslocalities，heforbadetheinhabitantsofonequartertomigratetoanother，andsopreventedtheminglingoftheraces。
HealsodoubledthethreeoldcenturiesofKnightsandaddedtwelvemore，stillkeepingtheoldnames，andbythissimpleandprudentmethod，succeededinmakingadistinctionbetweenthebodyofKnights，andthepeople，withoutamurmurfromthelatter。
TothefoururbantribesServiusaddedfifteenotherscalledruraltribes，becausetheyconsistedofthosewholivedinthecountry，dividedintofifteencantons。Subsequently，fifteenmorewerecreated，andtheRomanpeoplefinallyfounditselfdividedintothirty-fivetribes，asitremaineddowntotheendoftheRepublic。
Thedistinctionbetweenurbanandruraltribeshadoneeffectwhichisworthmention，bothbecauseitiswithoutparallelelsewhere，andbecausetoitRomeowedthepreservationofhermoralityandtheenlargementofherempire。Weshouldhaveexpectedthattheurbantribeswouldsoonmonopolisepowerandhonours，andlosenotimeinbringingtheruraltribesintodisrepute;
butwhathappenedwasexactlythereverse。ThetasteoftheearlyRomansforcountrylifeiswellknown。Thistastetheyowedtotheirwisefounder，whomaderuralandmilitarylaboursgoalongwithliberty，and，sotospeak，relegatedtothetownarts，crafts，intrigue，fortuneandslavery。
SincethereforeallRome’smostillustriouscitizenslivedinthefieldsandtilledtheearth，mengrewusedtoseekingtherealonethemainstaysoftherepublic。Thiscondition，beingthatofthebestpatricians，washonouredbyallmen;thesimpleandlaboriouslifeofthevillagerwaspreferredtotheslothfulandidlelifeofthebourgeoisieofRome;
andhewho，inthetown，wouldhavebeenbutawretchedproletarian，became，asalabourerinthefields，arespectedcitizen。Notwithoutreason，saysVarro，didourgreat-souledancestorsestablishinthevillagethenurseryofthesturdyandvaliantmenwhodefendedthemintimeofwarandprovidedfortheirsustenanceintimeofpeace。Plinystatespositivelythatthecountrytribeswerehonouredbecauseofthemenofwhomtheywerecomposed;
whilecowardsmenwishedtodishonourweretransferred，asapublicdisgrace，tothetowntribes。TheSabineAppiusClaudius，whenhehadcometosettleinRome，wasloadedwithhonoursandenrolledinaruraltribe，whichsubsequentlytookhisfamilyname。Lastly，freedmenalwaysenteredtheurban，aridnevertherural，tribes：noristhereasingleexample，throughouttheRepublic，ofafreedman，thoughhehadbecomeacitizen，reachinganymagistracy。
Thiswasanexcellentrule;butitwascarriedsofarthatintheenditledtoachangeandcertainlytoanabuseinthepoliticalsystem。
Firstthecensors，afterhavingforalongtimeclaimedtherightoftransferringcitizensarbitrarilyfromonetribetoanother，allowedmostpersonstoenrolthemselvesinwhatevertribetheypleased。Thispermissioncertainlydidnogood，andfurtherrobbedthecensorshipofoneofitsgreatestresources。Moreover，asthegreatandpowerfulallgotthemselvesenrolledinthecountrytribes，whilethefreedmenwhohadbecomecitizensremainedwiththepopulaceinthetowntribes，bothsoonceasedtohaveanylocalorterritorialmeaning，andallweresoconfusedthatthemembersofonecouldnotbetoldfromthoseofanotherexceptbytheregisters;
sothattheideaofthewordtribebecamepersonalinsteadofreal，orrathercametobelittlemorethanachimera。
Ithappenedinadditionthatthetowntribes，beingmoreonthespot，wereoftenthestrongerinthecomitiaandsoldtheStatetothosewhostoopedtobuythevotesoftherabblecomposingthem。
Asthefounderhadsetuptencuriæineachtribe，thewholeRomanpeople，whichwasthencontainedwithinthewalls，consistedofthirtycuriæ，eachwithitstemples，itsgods，itsofficers，itspriestsanditsfestivals，whichwerecalledcompitaliaandcorrespondedtothepaganalia，heldinlatertimesbytheruraltribes。
WhenServiusmadehisnewdivision，asthethirtycuriæcouldnotbesharedequallybetweenhisfourtribes，andashewasunwillingtointerferewiththem，theybecameafurtherdivisionoftheinhabitantsofRome，quiteindependentofthetribes：butinthecaseoftheruraltribesandtheirmemberstherewasnoquestionofcuriæ，asthetribeshadthenbecomeapurelycivilinstitution，and，anewsystemoflevyingtroopshavingbeenintroduced，themilitarydivisionsofRomulusweresuperfluous。Thus，althougheverycitizenwasenrolledinatribe，therewereverymanywhowerenotmembersofacuria。
Serviusmadeyetathirddivision，quitedistinctfromthetwowehavementioned，whichbecame，initseffects，themostimportantofall。HedistributedthewholeRomanpeopleintosixclasses，distinguishedneitherbyplacenorbyperson，butbywealth;thefirstclassesincludedtherich，thelastthepoor，andthosebetweenpersonsofmoderatemeans。Thesesixclassesweresubdividedintoonehundredandninety-threeotherbodies，calledcenturies，whichweresodividedthatthefirstclassalonecomprisedmorethanhalfofthem，whilethelastcomprisedonlyone。Thustheclassthathadthesmallestnumberofmembershadthelargestnumberofcenturies，andthewholeofthelastclassonlycountedasasinglesubdivision，althoughitaloneincludedmorethanhalftheinhabitantsofRome。
Inorderthatthepeoplemighthavethelessinsightintotheresultsofthisarrangement，Serviustriedtogiveitamilitarytone：inthesecondclassheinsertedtwocenturiesofarmourers，andinthefourthtwoofmakersofinstrumentsofwar：ineachclass，exceptthelast，hedistinguishedyoungandold，thatis，thosewhowereunderanobligationtobeararmsandthosewhoseagegavethemlegalexemption。Itwasthisdistinction，ratherthanthatofwealth，whichrequiredfrequentrepetitionofthecensusorcounting。Lastly，heorderedthattheassemblyshouldbeheldintheCampusMartius，andthatallwhowereofagetoserveshouldcometherearmed。
Thereasonforhisnotmakinginthelastclassalsothedivisionofyoungandoldwasthatthepopulace，ofwhomitwascomposed，wasnotgiventherighttobeararmsforitscountry：amanhadtopossessahearthtoacquiretherighttodefendit，andofallthetroopsofbeggarswhoto-daylendlustretothearmiesofkings，thereisperhapsnotonewhowouldnothavebeendrivenwithscornoutofaRomancohort，atatimewhensoldierswerethedefendersofliberty。
Inthislastclass，however，proletariansweredistinguishedfromcapitecensi。Theformer，notquitereducedtonothing，atleastgavetheStatecitizens，andsometimes，whentheneedwaspressing，evensoldiers。Thosewhohadnothingatall，andcouldbenumberedonlybycountingheads，wereregardedasofabsolutelynoaccount，andMariuswasthefirstwhostoopedtoenrolthem。
Withoutdecidingnowwhetherthisthirdarrangementwasgoodorbadinitself，IthinkImayassertthatitcouldhavebeenmadepracticableonlybythesimplemorals，thedisinterestedness，thelikingforagricultureandthescornforcommerceandforloveofgainwhichcharacterisedtheearlyRomans。Whereisthemodernpeopleamongwhomconsuminggreed，unrest，intrigue，continualremovals，andperpetualchangesoffortune，couldletsuchasystemlastfortwentyyearswithoutturningtheStateupsidedown？
Wemustindeedobservethatmoralityandthecensorship，beingstrongerthanthisinstitution，correcteditsdefectsatRome，andthattherichmanfoundhimselfdegradedtotheclassofthepoorformakingtoomuchdisplayofhisriches。
Fromallthisitiseasytounderstandwhyonlyfiveclassesarealmostalwaysmentioned，thoughtherewerereallysix。Thesixth，asitfurnishedneithersoldierstothearmynorvotesintheCampusMartius，36andwasalmostwithoutfunctionintheState，wasseldomregardedasofanyaccount。
ThesewerethevariouswaysinwhichtheRomanpeoplewasdivided。Letusnowseetheeffectontheassemblies。Whenlawfullysummoned，thesewerecalledcomitia：theywereusuallyheldinthepublicsquareatRomeorintheCampusMartius，andweredistinguishedascomitiacuriata，comitiacenturiata，andcomitiatributa，accordingtotheformunderwhichtheywereconvoked。ThecomitiacuriatawerefoundedbyRomulus;thecenturiatabyServius;andthetributabythetribunesofthepeople。Nolawreceiveditssanctionandnomagistratewaselected，saveinthecomitia;andaseverycitizenwasenrolledinacuria，acentury，oratribe，itfollowsthatnocitizenwasexcludedfromtherightofvoting，andthattheRomanpeoplewastrulysovereignbothdejureanddefacto。
Forthecomitiatobelawfullyassembled，andfortheiractstohavetheforceoflaw，threeconditionswerenecessary。First，thebodyormagistrateconvokingthemhadtopossessthenecessaryauthority;secondly，theassemblyhadtobeheldonadayallowedbylaw;andthirdly，theaugurieshadtobefavourable。
Thereasonforthefirstregulationneedsnoexplanation;thesecondisamatterofpolicy。Thus，thecomitiamightnotbeheldonfestivalsormarket-days，whenthecountry-folk，comingtoRomeonbusiness，hadnottimetospendthedayinthepublicsquare。Bymeansofthethird，thesenateheldinchecktheproudandrestivepeople，andmeetlyrestrainedtheardourofseditioustribunes，who，however，foundmorethanonewayofescapingthishindrance。
Lawsandtheelectionofrulerswerenottheonlyquestionssubmittedtothejudgmentofthecomitia：astheRomanpeoplehadtakenonitselfthemostimportantfunctionsofgovernment，itmaybesaidthatthelotofEuropewasregulatedinitsassemblies。Thevarietyoftheirobjectsgaverisetothevariousformsthesetook，accordingtothemattersonwhichtheyhadtopronounce。
Inordertojudgeofthesevariousforms，itisenoughtocomparethem。
Romulus，whenhesetupcuria，hadinviewthecheckingofthesenatebythepeople，andofthepeoplebythesenate，whilemaintaininghisascendancyoverbothalike。Hethereforegavethepeople，bymeansofthisassembly，alltheauthorityofnumberstobalancethatofpowerandriches，whichhelefttothepatricians。But，afterthespiritofmonarchy，heleftallthesameagreateradvantagetothepatriciansintheinfluenceoftheirclientsonthemajorityofvotes。Thisexcellentinstitutionofpatronandclientwasamasterpieceofstatesmanshipandhumanitywithoutwhichthepatriciate，beingflagrantlyincontradictiontotherepublicanspirit，couldnothavesurvived。Romealonehasthehonourofhavinggiventotheworldthisgreatexample，whichneverledtoanyabuse，andyethasneverbeenfollowed。
AstheassembliesbycuriæpersistedunderthekingstillthetimeofServius，andthereignofthelaterTarquinwasnotregardedaslegitimate，royallawswerecalledgenerallylegescuriatæ。
UndertheRepublic，thecuriæ，stillconfinedtothefoururbantribes，andincludingonlythepopulaceofRome，suitedneitherthesenate，whichledthepatricians，northetribunes，who，thoughplebeians，wereattheheadofthewell-to-docitizens。Theythereforefellintodisrepute，andtheirdegradationwassuch，thatthirtylictorsusedtoassembleanddowhatthecomitiacuriatashouldhavedone。
Thedivisionbycenturieswassofavourabletothearistocracythatitishardtoseeatfirsthowthesenateeverfailedtocarrythedayinthecomitiabearingtheirname，bywhichtheconsuls，thecensorsandtheothercurulemagistrateswereelected。Indeed，ofthehundredandninety-threecenturiesintowhichthesixclassesofthewholeRomanpeopleweredivided，thefirstclasscontainedninety-eight;and，asvotingwentsolelybycenturies，thisclassalonehadamajorityoveralltherest。Whenallthesecenturieswereinagreement，therestofthevoteswerenoteventaken;thedecisionofthesmallestnumberpassedforthatofthemultitude，anditmaybesaidthat，inthecomitiacenturiata，decisionswereregulatedfarmorebydepthofpursesthanbythenumberofvotes。
Butthisextremeauthoritywasmodifiedintwoways。First，thetribunesasarule，andalwaysagreatnumberofplebeians，belongedtotheclassoftherich，andsocounterbalancedtheinfluenceofthepatriciansinthefirstclass。
Thesecondwaywasthis。Insteadofcausingthecenturiestovotethroughoutinorder，whichwouldhavemeantbeginningalwayswiththefirst，theRomansalwayschoseonebylotwhichproceededalonetotheelection;afterthisallthecenturiesweresummonedanotherdayaccordingtotheirrank，andthesameelectionwasrepeated，andasaruleconfirmed。Thustheauthorityofexamplewastakenawayfromrank，andgiventothelotonademocraticprinciple。
Fromthiscustomresultedafurtheradvantage。Thecitizensfromthecountryhadtime，betweenthetwoelections，toinformthemselvesofthemeritsofthecandidatewhohadbeenprovisionallynominated，anddidnothavetovotewithoutknowledgeofthecase。But，underthepretextofhasteningmatters，theabolitionofthiscustomwasachieved，andbothelectionswereheldonthesameday。
ThecomitiatributawereproperlythecounciloftheRomanpeople。
Theywereconvokedbythetribunesalone;atthemthetribuneswereelectedandpassedtheirplebiscita。Thesenatenotonlyhadnostandinginthem，butevennorighttobepresent;andthesenators，beingforcedtoobeylawsonwhichtheycouldnotvote，wereinthisrespectlessfreethanthemeanestcitizens。Thisinjusticewasaltogetherill-conceived，andwasaloneenoughtoinvalidatethedecreesofabodytowhichallitsmemberswerenotadmitted。Hadallthepatriciansattendedthecomitiabyvirtueoftherighttheyhadascitizens，theywouldnot，asmereprivateindividuals，havehadanyconsiderableinfluenceonavotereckonedbycountingheads，wherethemeanestproletarianwasasgoodastheprincepssenatus。
Itmaybeseen，therefore，thatbesidestheorderwhichwasachievedbythesevariouswaysofdistributingsogreatapeopleandtakingitsvotes，thevariousmethodswerenotreducibletoformsindifferentinthemselves，buttheresultsofeachwererelativetotheobjectswhichcausedittobepreferred。
Withoutgoinghereintofurtherdetails，wemaygatherfromwhathasbeensaidabovethatthecomitiatributawerethemostfavourabletopopulargovernment，andthecomitiacenturiatatoaristocracy。
Thecomitiacuriata，inwhichthepopulaceofRomeformedthemajority，beingfittedonlytofurthertyrannyandevildesigns，naturallyfellintodisrepute，andevenseditiouspersonsabstainedfromusingamethodwhichtooclearlyrevealedtheirprojects。ItisindisputablethatthewholemajestyoftheRomanpeoplelaysolelyinthecomitiacenturiata，whichaloneincludedall;forthecomitiacuriataexcludedtheruraltribes，andthecomitiatributathesenateandthepatricians。
Asforthemethodoftakingthevote，itwasamongtheancientRomansassimpleastheirmorals，althoughnotsosimpleasatSparta。Eachmandeclaredhisvotealoud，andaclerkdulywroteitdown;themajorityineachtribedeterminedthevoteofthetribe，themajorityofthetribesthatofthepeople，andsowithcuriæandcenturies。Thiscustomwasgoodaslongashonestywastriumphantamongthecitizens，andeachmanwasashamedtovotepubliclyinfavourofanunjustproposaloranunworthysubject;but，whenthepeoplegrewcorruptandvoteswerebought，itwasfittingthatvotingshouldbesecretinorderthatpurchasersmightberestrainedbymistrust，androguesbegiventhemeansofnotbeingtraitors。
IknowthatCiceroattacksthischange，andattributespartlytoittheruinoftheRepublic。ButthoughIfeeltheweightCicero’sauthoritymustcarryonsuchapoint，Icannotagreewithhim;Ihold，onthecontrary，that，forwantofenoughsuchchanges，thedestructionoftheStatemustbehastened。Justastheregimenofhealthdoesnotsuitthesick，weshouldnotwishtogovernapeoplethathasbeencorruptedbythelawsthatagoodpeoplerequires。ThereisnobetterproofofthisrulethanthelonglifeoftheRepublicofVenice，ofwhichtheshadowstillexists，solelybecauseitslawsaresuitableonlyformenwhoarewicked。
Thecitizenswereprovided，therefore，withtabletsbymeansofwhicheachmancouldvotewithoutanyoneknowinghowhevoted：newmethodswerealsointroducedforcollectingthetablets，forcountingvoices，forcomparingnumbers，etc。;butalltheseprecautionsdidnotpreventthegoodfaithoftheofficerschargedwiththesefunctions37frombeingoftensuspect。Finally，topreventintriguesandtraffickinginvotes，edictswereissued;buttheirverynumberproveshowuselesstheywere。
TowardsthecloseoftheRepublic，itwasoftennecessarytohaverecoursetoextraordinaryexpedientsinordertosupplementtheinadequacyofthelaws。Sometimesmiraclesweresupposed;butthismethod，whileitmightimposeonthepeople，couldnotimposeonthosewhogoverned。Sometimesanassemblywashastilycalledtogether，beforethecandidateshadtimetoformtheirfactions：sometimesawholesittingwasoccupiedwithtalk，whenitwasseenthatthepeoplehadbeenwonoverandwasonthepointoftakingupawrongposition。Butintheendambitioneludedallattemptstocheckit;andthemostincrediblefactofallisthat，inthemidstofalltheseabuses，thevastpeople，thankstoitsancientregulations，neverceasedtoelectmagistrates，topasslaws，tojudgecases，andtocarrythroughbusinessbothpublicandprivate，almostaseasilyasthesenateitselfcouldhavedone。5。THETRIBUNATEWHENanexactproportioncannotbeestablishedbetweentheconstituentpartsoftheState，orwhencausesthatcannotberemovedcontinuallyaltertherelationofoneparttoanother，recourseishadtotheinstitutionofapeculiarmagistracythatentersintonocorporateunitywiththerest。Thisrestorestoeachtermitsrightrelationtotheothers，andprovidesalinkormiddletermbetweeneitherprinceandpeople，orprinceandSovereign，or，ifnecessary，bothatonce。
Thisbody，whichIshallcallthetribunate，isthepreserverofthelawsandofthelegislativepower。ItservessometimestoprotecttheSovereignagainstthegovernment，asthetribunesofthepeopledidatRome;sometimestoupholdthegovernmentagainstthepeople，astheCouncilofTennowdoesatVenice;andsometimestomaintainthebalancebetweenthetwo，astheEphorsdidatSparta。
Thetribunateisnotaconstituentpartofthecity，andshouldhavenoshareineitherlegislativeorexecutivepower;butthisveryfactmakesitsownpowerthegreater：for，whileitcandonothing，itcanpreventanythingfrombeingdone。Itismoresacredandmorerevered，asthedefenderofthelaws，thantheprincewhoexecutesthem，orthantheSovereignwhichordainsthem。ThiswasseenveryclearlyatRome，whentheproudpatricians，foralltheirscornofthepeople，wereforcedtobowbeforeoneofitsofficers，whohadneitherauspicesnorjurisdiction。
Thetribunate，wiselytempered，isthestrongestsupportagoodconstitutioncanhave;butifitsstrengthiseversolittleexcessive，itupsetsthewholeState。Weakness，ontheotherhand，isnotnaturaltoit：provideditissomething，itisneverlessthanitshouldbe。
Itdegeneratesintotyrannywhenitusurpstheexecutivepower，whichitshouldconfineitselftorestraining，andwhenittriestodispensewiththelaws，whichitshouldconfineitselftoprotecting。TheimmensepoweroftheEphors，harmlessaslongasSpartapreserveditsmorality，hastenedcorruptionwhenonceithadbegun。ThebloodofAgis，slaughteredbythesetyrants，wasavengedbyhissuccessor;thecrimeandthepunishmentoftheEphorsalikehastenedthedestructionoftherepublic，andafterCleomenesSpartaceasedtobeofanyaccount。Romeperishedinthesameway：theexcessivepowerofthetribunes，whichtheyhadusurpedbydegrees，finallyserved，withthehelpoflawsmadetosecureliberty，asasafeguardfortheemperorswhodestroyedit。AsfortheVenetianCouncilofTen，itisatribunalofblood，anobjectofhorrortopatriciansandpeoplealike;and，sofarfromgivingaloftyprotectiontothelaws，itdoesnothing，nowtheyhavebecomedegraded，butstrikeinthedarknessblowsofwhichnoonedaretakenote。
Thetribunate，likethegovernment，growsweakasthenumberofitsmembersincreases。WhenthetribunesoftheRomanpeople，whofirstnumberedonlytwo，andthenfive，wishedtodoublethatnumber，thesenateletthemdoso，intheconfidencethatitcoulduseonetocheckanother，asindeeditafterwardsfreelydid。
Thebestmethodofpreventingusurpationsbysoformidableabody，thoughnogovernmenthasyetmadeuseofit，wouldbenottomakeitpermanent，buttoregulatetheperiodsduringwhichitshouldremaininabeyance。
Theseintervals，whichshouldnotbelongenoughtogiveabusestimetogrowstrong，maybesofixedbylawthattheycaneasilybeshortenedatneedbyextraordinarycommissions。
Thismethodseemstometohavenodisadvantages，because，asIhavesaid，thetribunate，whichformsnopartoftheconstitution，canberemovedwithouttheconstitutionbeingaffected。Itseemstobealsoefficacious，becauseanewlyrestoredmagistratestartsnotwiththepowerhispredecessorexercised，butwiththatwhichthelawallowshim。6。THEDICTATORSHIPTHEinflexibilityofthelaws，whichpreventsthemfromadaptingthemselvestocircumstances，may，incertaincases，renderthemdisastrous，andmakethembringabout，atatimeofcrisis，theruinoftheState。Theorderandslownessoftheformstheyenjoinrequireaspaceoftimewhichcircumstancessometimeswithhold。
Athousandcasesagainstwhichthelegislatorhasmadenoprovisionmaypresentthemselves，anditisahighlynecessarypartofforesighttobeconsciousthateverythingcannotbeforeseen。
Itiswrongthereforetowishtomakepoliticalinstitutionssostrongastorenderitimpossibletosuspendtheiroperation。EvenSpartaalloweditslawstolapse。
However，nonebutthegreatestdangerscancounterbalancethatofchangingthepublicorder，andthesacredpowerofthelawsshouldneverbearrestedsavewhentheexistenceofthecountryisatstake。Intheserareandobviouscases，provisionismadeforthepublicsecuritybyaparticularactentrustingittohimwhoismostworthy。Thiscommitmentmaybecarriedoutineitheroftwoways，accordingtothenatureofthedanger。
Ifincreasingtheactivityofthegovernmentisasufficientremedy，powerisconcentratedinthehandsofoneortwoofitsmembers：inthiscasethechangeisnotintheauthorityofthelaws，butonlyintheformofadministeringthem。If，ontheotherhand，theperilisofsuchakindthattheparaphernaliaofthelawsareanobstacletotheirpreservation，themethodistonominateasupremeruler，whoshallsilenceallthelawsandsuspendforamomentthesovereignauthority。Insuchacase，thereisnodoubtaboutthegeneralwill，anditisclearthatthepeople’sfirstintentionisthattheStateshallnotperish。Thusthesuspensionofthelegislativeauthorityisinnosenseitsabolition;themagistratewhosilencesitcannotmakeitspeak;hedominatesit，butcannotrepresentit。Hecandoanything，exceptmakelaws。
ThefirstmethodwasusedbytheRomansenatewhen，inaconsecratedformula，itchargedtheconsulstoprovideforthesafetyoftheRepublic。
Thesecondwasemployedwhenoneofthetwoconsulsnominatedadictator：38acustomRomeborrowedfromAlba。
DuringthefirstperiodoftheRepublic，recoursewasveryoftenhadtothedictatorship，becausetheStatehadnotyetafirmenoughbasistobeabletomaintainitselfbythestrengthofitsconstitutionalone。
Asthestateofmoralitythenmadesuperfluousmanyoftheprecautionswhichwouldhavebeennecessaryatothertimes，therewasnofearthatadictatorwouldabusehisauthority，ortrytokeepitbeyondhistermofoffice。Onthecontrary，somuchpowerappearedtobeburdensometohimwhowasclothedwithit，andhemadeallspeedtolayitdown，asiftakingtheplaceofthelawshadbeentootroublesomeandtooperilousapositiontoretain。
Itisthereforethedangernotofitsabuse，butofitscheapening，thatmakesmeattacktheindiscreetuseofthissuprememagistracyintheearliesttimes。Foraslongasitwasfreelyemployedatelections，dedicationsandpurelyformalfunctions，therewasdangerofitsbecominglessformidableintimeofneed，andofmengrowingaccustomedtoregardingasemptyatitlethatwasusedonlyonoccasionsofemptyceremonial。
TowardstheendoftheRepublic，theRomans，havinggrownmorecircumspect，wereasunreasonablysparingintheuseofthedictatorshipastheyhadformerlybeenlavish。Itiseasytoseethattheirfearswerewithoutfoundation，thattheweaknessofthecapitalsecureditagainstthemagistrateswhowereinitsmidst;thatadictatormight，incertaincases，defendthepublicliberty，butcouldneverendangerit;andthatthechainsofRomewouldbeforged，notinRomeitself，butinherarmies。TheweakresistanceofferedbyMariustoSulla，andbyPompeytoCæsar，clearlyshowedwhatwastobeexpectedfromauthorityathomeagainstforcefromabroad。
ThismisconceptionledtheRomanstomakegreatmistakes;such，forexample，asthefailuretonominateadictatorintheCatilinarianconspiracy。
For，asonlythecityitself，withatmostsomeprovinceinItaly，wasconcerned，theunlimitedauthoritythelawsgavetothedictatorwouldhaveenabledhimtomakeshortworkoftheconspiracy，whichwas，infact，stifledonlybyacombinationofluckychanceshumanprudencehadnorighttoexpect。
Instead，thesenatecontenteditselfwithentrustingitswholepowertotheconsuls，sothatCicero，inordertotakeeffectiveaction，wascompelledonacapitalpointtoexceedhispowers;andif，inthefirsttransportsofjoy，hisconductwasapproved，hewasjustlycalled，lateron，toaccountforthebloodofcitizensspiltinviolationofthelaws。
Suchareproachcouldneverhavebeenlevelledatadictator。Buttheconsul’seloquencecarriedtheday;andhehimself，Romanthoughhewas，lovedhisownglorybetterthanhiscountry，andsought，notsomuchthemostlawfulandsecuremeansofsavingtheState，astogetforhimselfthewholehonourofhavingdoneso。39HewasthereforejustlyhonouredastheliberatorofRome，andalsojustlypunishedasalaw-breaker。Howeverbrillianthisrecallmayhavebeen，itwasundoubtedlyanactofpardon。
Howeverthisimportanttrustbeconferred，itisimportantthatitsdurationshouldbefixedataverybriefperiod，incapableofbeingeverprolonged。Inthecriseswhichleadtoitsadoption，theStateiseithersoonlost，orsoonsaved;and，thepresentneedpassed，thedictatorshipbecomeseithertyrannicaloridle。AtRome，wheredictatorsheldofficeforsixmonthsonly，mostofthemabdicatedbeforetheirtimewasup。Iftheirtermhadbeenlonger，theymightwellhavetriedtoprolongitstillfurther，asthedecemvirsdidwhenchosenforayear。Thedictatorhadonlytimetoprovideagainsttheneedthathadcausedhimtobechosen;
hehadnonetothinkoffurtherprojects。7。THECENSORSHIPASthelawisthedeclarationofthegeneralwill，thecensorshipisthedeclarationofthepublicjudgment：
publicopinionistheformoflawwhichthecensoradministers，and，liketheprince，onlyappliestoparticularcases。
Thecensorialtribunal，sofarfrombeingthearbiterofthepeople’sopinion，onlydeclaresit，and，assoonasthetwopartcompany，itsdecisionsarenullandvoid。
Itisuselesstodistinguishthemoralityofanationfromtheobjectsofitsesteem;bothdependonthesameprincipleandarenecessarilyindistinguishable。
Thereisnopeopleonearththechoiceofwhosepleasuresisnotdecidedbyopinionratherthannature。Rightmen’sopinions，andtheirmoralitywillpurgeitself。Menalwayslovewhatisgoodorwhattheyfindgood;
itisinjudgingwhatisgoodthattheygowrong。Thisjudgment，therefore，iswhatmustberegulated。Hewhojudgesofmoralityjudgesofhonour;
andhewhojudgesofhonourfindshislawinopinion。
Theopinionsofapeoplearederivedfromitsconstitution;althoughthelawdoesnotregulatemorality，itislegislationthatgivesitbirth。
Whenlegislationgrowsweak，moralitydegenerates;butinsuchcasesthejudgmentofthecensorswillnotdowhattheforceofthelawshasfailedtoeffect。
Fromthisitfollowsthatthecensorshipmaybeusefulforthepreservationofmorality，butcanneverbesoforitsrestoration。Setupcensorswhilethelawsarevigorous;assoonastheyhavelosttheirvigour，allhopeisgone;nolegitimatepowercanretainforcewhenthelawshavelostit。
Thecensorshipupholdsmoralitybypreventingopinionfromgrowingcorrupt，bypreservingitsrectitudebymeansofwiseapplications，andsometimesevenbyfixingitwhenitisstilluncertain。Theemploymentofsecondsinduels，whichhadbeencarriedtowildextremesinthekingdomofFrance，wasdoneawaywithmerelybythesewordsinaroyaledict：\"Asforthosewhoarecowardsenoughtocalluponseconds。\"Thisjudgment，inanticipatingthatofthepublic，suddenlydecidedit。Butwhenedictsfromthesamesourcetriedtopronounceduellingitselfanactofcowardice，asindeeditis，then，sincecommonopiniondoesnotregarditassuch，thepublictooknonoticeofadecisiononapointonwhichitsmindwasalreadymadeup。
Ihavestatedelsewhere40thataspublicopinionisnotsubjecttoanyconstraint，thereneedbenotraceofitinthetribunalsetuptorepresentit。Itisimpossibletoadmiretoomuchtheartwithwhichthisresource，whichwemodernshavewhollylost，wasemployedbytheRomans，andstillmorebytheLacedæmonians。
AmanofbadmoralshavingmadeagoodproposalintheSpartanCouncil，theEphorsneglectedit，andcausedthesameproposaltobemadebyavirtuouscitizen。Whatanhonourfortheone，andwhatadisgracefortheother，withoutpraiseorblameofeither！CertaindrunkardsfromSamos41pollutedthetribunaloftheEphors：thenextday，apublicedictgaveSamianspermissiontobefilthy。Anactualpunishmentwouldnothavebeensosevereassuchanimpunity。WhenSpartahaspronouncedonwhatisorisnotright，Greecemakesnoappealfromherjudgments。8。CIVILRELIGIONATfirstmenhadnokingssavethegods，andnogovernmentsavetheocracy。TheyreasonedlikeCaligula，and，atthatperiod，reasonedaright。Ittakesalongtimeforfeelingsotochangethatmencanmakeuptheirmindstotaketheirequalsasmasters，inthehopethattheywillprofitbydoingso。
FromthemerefactthatGodwassetovereverypoliticalsociety，itfollowedthattherewereasmanygodsaspeoples。Twopeoplesthatwerestrangerstheonetotheother，andalmostalwaysenemies，couldnotlongrecognisethesamemaster：twoarmiesgivingbattlecouldnotobeythesameleader。Nationaldivisionsthusledtopolytheism，andthisinturngaverisetotheologicalandcivilintolerance，which，asweshallseehereafter，arebynaturethesame。
ThefancytheGreekshadforrediscoveringtheirgodsamongthebarbariansarosefromthewaytheyhadofregardingthemselvesasthenaturalSovereignsofsuchpeoples。Butthereisnothingsoabsurdastheeruditionwhichinourdaysidentifiesandconfusesgodsofdifferentnations。AsifMoloch，Saturn，andChronoscouldbethesamegod！AsifthePhoenicianBaal，theGreekZeus，andtheLatinJupitercouldbethesame！Asiftherecouldstillbeanythingcommontoimaginarybeingswithdifferentnames！
Ifitisaskedhowinpagantimes，whereeachStatehaditscultanditsgods，therewerenowarsofreligion，IanswerthatitwaspreciselybecauseeachState，havingitsowncultaswellasitsowngovernment，madenodistinctionbetweenitsgodsanditslaws。Politicalwarwasalsotheological;theprovincesofthegodswere，sotospeak，fixedbytheboundariesofnations。Thegodofonepeoplehadnorightoveranother。
Thegodsofthepaganswerenotjealousgods;theysharedamongthemselvestheempireoftheworld：evenMosesandtheHebrewssometimeslentthemselvestothisviewbyspeakingoftheGodofIsrael。Itistrue，theyregardedaspowerlessthegodsoftheCanaanites，aproscribedpeoplecondemnedtodestruction，whoseplacetheyweretotake;butrememberhowtheyspokeofthedivisionsoftheneighbouringpeoplestheywereforbiddentoattack！
\"IsnotthepossessionofwhatbelongstoyourgodChamoslawfullyyourdue？\"saidJephthahtotheAmmonites。\"WehavethesametitletothelandsourconqueringGodhasmadehisown。\"42Here，Ithink，thereisarecognitionthattherightsofChamosandthoseoftheGodofIsraelareofthesamenature。
ButwhentheJews，beingsubjecttotheKingsofBabylon，and，subsequently，tothoseofSyria，stillobstinatelyrefusedtorecogniseanygodsavetheirown，theirrefusalwasregardedasrebellionagainsttheirconqueror，anddrewdownonthemthepersecutionswereadofintheirhistory，whicharewithoutparalleltillthecomingofChristianity。43
Everyreligion，therefore，beingattachedsolelytothelawsoftheStatewhichprescribedit，therewasnowayofconvertingapeopleexceptbyenslavingit，andtherecouldbenomissionariessaveconquerors。Theobligationtochangecultsbeingthelawtowhichthevanquishedyielded，itwasnecessarytobevictoriousbeforesuggestingsuchachange。Sofarfrommenfightingforthegods，thegods，asinHomer，foughtformen;
eachaskedhisgodforvictory，andrepayedhimwithnewaltars。TheRomans，beforetakingacity，summoneditsgodstoquitit;and，inleavingtheTarentinestheiroutragedgods，theyregardedthemassubjecttotheirownandcompelledtodothemhomage。Theyleftthevanquishedtheirgodsastheyleftthemtheirlaws。AwreathtotheJupiteroftheCapitolwasoftentheonlytributetheyimposed。
Finally，when，alongwiththeirempire，theRomanshadspreadtheircultandtheirgods，andhadthemselvesoftenadoptedthoseofthevanquished，bygrantingtobothaliketherightsofthecity，thepeoplesofthatvastempireinsensiblyfoundthemselveswithmultitudesofgodsandcults，everywherealmostthesame;andthuspaganismthroughouttheknownworldfinallycametobeoneandthesamereligion。
ItwasinthesecircumstancesthatJesuscametosetuponearthaspiritualkingdom，which，byseparatingthetheologicalfromthepoliticalsystem，madetheStatenolongerone，andbroughtabouttheinternaldivisionswhichhaveneverceasedtotroubleChristianpeoples。Asthenewideaofakingdomoftheotherworldcouldneverhaveoccurredtopagans，theyalwayslookedontheChristiansasreallyrebels，who，whilefeigningtosubmit，wereonlywaitingforthechancetomakethemselvesindependentandtheirmasters，andtousurpbyguiletheauthoritytheypretendedintheirweaknesstorespect。Thiswasthecauseofthepersecutions。
Whatthepaganshadfearedtookplace。Theneverythingchangeditsaspect：
thehumbleChristianschangedtheirlanguage，andsoonthisso-calledkingdomoftheotherworldturned，underavisibleleader，intothemostviolentofearthlydespotisms。
However，astherehavealwaysbeenaprinceandcivillaws，thisdoublepowerandconflictofjurisdictionhavemadeallgoodpolityimpossibleinChristianStates;andmenhaveneversucceededinfindingoutwhethertheywereboundtoobeythemasterorthepriest。
Severalpeoples，however，eveninEuropeanditsneighbourhood，havedesiredwithoutsuccesstopreserveorrestoretheoldsystem：butthespiritofChristianityhaseverywhereprevailed。ThesacredculthasalwaysremainedoragainbecomeindependentoftheSovereign，andtherehasbeennonecessarylinkbetweenitandthebodyoftheState。Mahometheldverysaneviews，andlinkedhispoliticalsystemwelltogether;and，aslongastheformofhisgovernmentcontinuedunderthecaliphswhosucceededhim，thatgovernmentwasindeedone，andsofargood。ButtheArabs，havinggrownprosperous，lettered，civilised，slackandcowardly，wereconqueredbybarbarians：thedivisionbetweenthetwopowersbeganagain;and，althoughitislessapparentamongtheMahometansthanamongtheChristians，itnonethelessexists，especiallyinthesectofAli，andthereareStates，suchasPersia，whereitiscontinuallymakingitselffelt。
Amongus，theKingsofEnglandhavemadethemselvesheadsoftheChurch，andtheCzarshavedonethesame：butthistitlehasmadethemlessitsmastersthanitsministers;theyhavegainednotsomuchtherighttochangeit，asthepowertomaintainit：theyarenotitslegislators，butonlyitsprinces。Wherevertheclergyisacorporatebody，44itismasterandlegislatorinitsowncountry。Therearethustwopowers，twoSovereigns，inEnglandandinRussia，aswellaselsewhere。
OfallChristianwriters，thephilosopherHobbesalonehasseentheevilandhowtoremedyit，andhasdaredtoproposethereunionofthetwoheadsoftheeagle，andtherestorationthroughoutofpoliticalunity，withoutwhichnoStateorgovernmentwilleverberightlyconstituted。
ButheshouldhaveseenthatthemasterfulspiritofChristianityisincompatiblewithhissystem，andthatthepriestlyinterestwouldalwaysbestrongerthanthatoftheState。Itisnotsomuchwhatisfalseandterribleinhispoliticaltheory，aswhatisjustandtrue，thathasdrawndownhatredonit。45
Ibelievethatifthestudyofhistoryweredevelopedfromthispointofview，itwouldbeeasytorefutethecontraryopinionsofBayleandWarburton，oneofwhomholdsthatreligioncanbeofnousetothebodypolitic，whiletheother，onthecontrary，maintainsthatChristianityisitsstrongestsupport。WeshoulddemonstratetotheformerthatnoStatehaseverbeenfoundedwithoutareligiousbasis，andtothelatter，thatthelawofChristianityatbottomdoesmoreharmbyweakeningthangoodbystrengtheningtheconstitutionoftheState。Tomakemyselfunderstood，Ihaveonlytomakealittlemoreexactthetoovagueideasofreligionasrelatingtothissubject。
Religion，consideredinrelationtosociety，whichiseithergeneralorparticular，mayalsobedividedintotwokinds：thereligionofman，andthatofthecitizen。Thefirst，whichhasneithertemples，noraltars，norrites，andisconfinedtothepurelyinternalcultofthesupremeGodandtheeternalobligationsofmorality，isthereligionoftheGospelpureandsimple，thetruetheism，whatmaybecallednaturaldivinerightorlaw。Theother，whichiscodifiedinasinglecountry，givesititsgods，itsowntutelarypatrons;ithasitsdogmas，itsrites，anditsexternalcultprescribedbylaw;outsidethesinglenationthatfollowsit，alltheworldisinitssightinfidel，foreignandbarbarous;thedutiesandrightsofmanextendforitonlyasfarasitsownaltars。Ofthiskindwereallthereligionsofearlypeoples，whichwemaydefineascivilorpositivedivinerightorlaw。
Thereisathirdsortofreligionofamoresingularkind，whichgivesmentwocodesoflegislation，tworulers，andtwocountries，rendersthemsubjecttocontradictoryduties，andmakesitimpossibleforthemtobefaithfulbothtoreligionandtocitizenship。SucharethereligionsoftheLamasandoftheJapanese，andsuchisRomanChristianity，whichmaybecalledthereligionofthepriest。Itleadstoasortofmixedandanti-socialcodewhichhasnoname。
Intheirpoliticalaspect，allthesethreekindsofreligionhavetheirdefects。Thethirdissoclearlybad，thatitiswasteoftimetostoptoproveitsuch。Allthatdestroyssocialunityisworthless;allinstitutionsthatsetmanincontradictiontohimselfareworthless。
Thesecondisgoodinthatitunitesthedivinecultwithloveofthelaws，and，makingcountrytheobjectofthecitizens’adoration，teachesthemthatservicedonetotheStateisservicedonetoitstutelarygod。
Itisaformoftheocracy，inwhichtherecanbenopontiffsavetheprince，andnopriestssavethemagistrates。Todieforone’scountrythenbecomesmartyrdom;violationofitslaws，impiety;andtosubjectonewhoisguiltytopublicexecrationistocondemnhimtotheangerofthegods：Sacerestod。
Ontheotherhand，itisbadinthat，beingfoundedonliesanderror，itdeceivesmen，makesthemcredulousandsuperstitious，anddrownsthetruecultoftheDivinityinemptyceremonial。Itisbad，again，whenitbecomestyrannousandexclusive，andmakesapeoplebloodthirstyandintolerant，sothatitbreathesfireandslaughter，andregardsasasacredactthekillingofeveryonewhodoesnotbelieveinitsgods。Theresultistoplacesuchapeopleinanaturalstateofwarwithallothers，sothatitssecurityisdeeplyendangered。
ThereremainsthereforethereligionofmanorChristianity？nottheChristianityofto-day，butthatoftheGospel，whichisentirelydifferent。
Bymeansofthisholy，sublime，andrealreligionallmen，beingchildrenofoneGod，recogniseoneanotherasbrothers，andthesocietythatunitesthemisnotdissolvedevenatdeath。
Butthisreligion，havingnoparticularrelationtothebodypolitic，leavesthelawsinpossessionoftheforcetheyhaveinthemselveswithoutmakinganyadditiontoit;andthusoneofthegreatbondsthatunitesocietyconsideredinseverallyfailstooperate。Nay，more，sofarfrombindingtheheartsofthecitizenstotheState，ithastheeffectoftakingthemawayfromallearthlythings。Iknowofnothingmorecontrarytothesocialspirit。
WearetoldthatapeopleoftrueChristianswouldformthemostperfectsocietyimaginable。Iseeinthissuppositiononlyonegreatdifficulty：
thatasocietyoftrueChristianswouldnotbeasocietyofmen。
Isayfurtherthatsuchasociety，withallitsperfection，wouldbeneitherthestrongestnorthemostlasting：theveryfactthatitwasperfectwouldrobitofitsbondofunion;theflawthatwoulddestroyitwouldlieinitsveryperfection。
Everyonewoulddohisduty;thepeoplewouldbelaw-abiding，therulersjustandtemperate;themagistratesuprightandincorruptible;thesoldierswouldscorndeath;therewouldbeneithervanitynorluxury。Sofar，sogood;butletushearmore。
Christianityasareligionisentirelyspiritual，occupiedsolelywithheavenlythings;thecountryoftheChristianisnotofthisworld。Hedoeshisduty，indeed，butdoesitwithprofoundindifferencetothegoodorillsuccessofhiscares。Providedhehasnothingtoreproachhimselfwith，itmatterslittletohimwhetherthingsgowellorillhereonearth。
IftheStateisprosperous，hehardlydarestoshareinthepublichappiness，forfearhemaygrowproudofhiscountry’sglory;iftheStateislanguishing，heblessesthehandofGodthatisharduponHispeople。
FortheStatetobepeaceableandforharmonytobemaintained，allthecitizenswithoutexceptionwouldhavetobegoodChristians;ifbyillhapthereshouldbeasingleself-seekerorhypocrite，aCatilineoraCromwell，forinstance，hewouldcertainlygetthebetterofhispiouscompatriots。Christiancharitydoesnotreadilyallowamantothinkhardlyofhisneighbours。Assoonas，bysometrick，hehasdiscoveredtheartofimposingonthemandgettingholdofashareinthepublicauthority，youhaveamanestablishedindignity;itisthewillofGodthatheberespected：verysoonyouhaveapower;itisGod’swillthatitbeobeyed：
andifthepowerisabusedbyhimwhowieldsit，itisthescourgewherewithGodpunishesHischildren。Therewouldbescruplesaboutdrivingouttheusurper：publictranquillitywouldhavetobedisturbed，violencewouldhavetobeemployed，andbloodspilt;allthisaccordsillwithChristianmeekness;andafterall，inthisvaleofsorrows，whatdoesitmatterwhetherwearefreemenorserfs？Theessentialthingistogettoheaven，andresignationisonlyanadditionalmeansofdoingso。
IfwarbreaksoutwithanotherState，thecitizensmarchreadilyouttobattle;notoneofthemthinksofflight;theydotheirduty，buttheyhavenopassionforvictory;theyknowbetterhowtodiethanhowtoconquer。
Whatdoesitmatterwhethertheywinorlose？DoesnotProvidenceknowbetterthantheywhatismeetforthem？Onlythinktowhataccountaproud，impetuousandpassionateenemycouldturntheirstoicism！Setoveragainstthemthosegenerouspeopleswhoweredevouredbyardentloveofgloryandoftheircountry，imagineyourChristianrepublicfacetofacewithSpartaorRome：thepiousChristianswillbebeaten，crushedanddestroyed，beforetheyknowwheretheyare，orwillowetheirsafetyonlytothecontempttheirenemywillconceiveforthem。ItwastomymindafineoaththatwastakenbythesoldiersofFabius，whoswore，nottoconquerordie，buttocomebackvictorious？andkepttheiroath。Christianswouldneverhavetakensuchanoath;theywouldhavelookedonitastemptingGod。
ButIammistakeninspeakingofaChristianrepublic;thetermsaremutuallyexclusive。Christianitypreachesonlyservitudeanddependence。
Itsspiritissofavourabletotyrannythatitalwaysprofitsbysucharégime。TrueChristiansaremadetobeslaves，andtheyknowitanddonotmuchmind：thisshortlifecountsfortoolittleintheireyes。
IshallbetoldthatChristiantroopsareexcellent。Idenyit。Showmeaninstance。Formypart，IknowofnoChristiantroops。IshallbetoldoftheCrusades。WithoutdisputingthevalouroftheCrusaders，I
answerthat，sofarfrombeingChristians，theywerethepriests’soldiery，citizensoftheChurch。Theyfoughtfortheirspiritualcountry，whichtheChurchhad，somehoworother，madetemporal。Wellunderstood，thisgoesbacktopaganism：astheGospelsetsupnonationalreligion，aholywarisimpossibleamongChristians。
Underthepaganemperors，theChristiansoldierswerebrave;everyChristianwriteraffirmsit，andIbelieveit：itwasacaseofhonourableemulationofthepagantroops。AssoonastheemperorswereChristian，thisemulationnolongerexisted，and，whentheCrosshaddrivenouttheeagle，Romanvalourwhollydisappeared。
But，settingasidepoliticalconsiderations，letuscomebacktowhatisright，andsettleourprinciplesonthisimportantpoint。TherightwhichthesocialcompactgivestheSovereignoverthesubjectsdoesnot，wehaveseen，exceedthelimitsofpublicexpediency。46ThesubjectsthenowetheSovereignanaccountoftheiropinionsonlytosuchanextentastheymattertothecommunity。Now，itmattersverymuchtothecommunitythateachcitizenshouldhaveareligion。Thatwillmakehimlovehisduty;butthedogmasofthatreligionconcerntheStateanditsmembersonlysofarastheyhavereferencetomoralityandtothedutieswhichhewhoprofessesthemisboundtodotoothers。Eachmanmayhave，overandabove，whatopinionshepleases，withoutitbeingtheSovereign’sbusinesstotakecognisanceofthem;for，astheSovereignhasnoauthorityintheotherworld，whateverthelotofitssubjectsmaybeinthelifetocome，thatisnotitsbusiness，providedtheyaregoodcitizensinthislife。
ThereisthereforeapurelycivilprofessionoffaithofwhichtheSovereignshouldfixthearticles，notexactlyasreligiousdogmas，butassocialsentimentswithoutwhichamancannotbeagoodcitizenorafaithfulsubject。47Whileitcancompelnoonetobelievethem，itcanbanishfromtheStatewhoeverdoesnotbelievethem？itcanbanishhim，notforimpiety，butasananti-socialbeing，incapableoftrulylovingthelawsandjustice，andofsacrificing，atneed，hislifetohisduty。Ifanyone，afterpubliclyrecognisingthesedogmas，behavesasifhedoesnotbelievethem，lethimbepunishedbydeath：hehascommittedtheworstofallcrimes，thatoflyingbeforethelaw。
Thedogmasofcivilreligionoughttobefew，simple，andexactlyworded，withoutexplanationorcommentary。Theexistenceofamighty，intelligentandbeneficentDivinity，possessedofforesightandprovidence，thelifetocome，thehappinessofthejust，thepunishmentofthewicked，thesanctityofthesocialcontractandthelaws：theseareitspositivedogmas。ItsnegativedogmasIconfinetoone，intolerance，whichisapartofthecultswehaverejected。
Thosewhodistinguishcivilfromtheologicalintoleranceare，tomymind，mistaken。Thetwoformsareinseparable。Itisimpossibletoliveatpeacewiththoseweregardasdamned;tolovethemwouldbetohateGodwhopunishesthem：wepositivelymusteitherreclaimortormentthem。
Wherevertheologicalintoleranceisadmitted，itmustinevitablyhavesomecivileffect;48andassoonasithassuchaneffect，theSovereignisnolongerSovereigneveninthetemporalsphere：thenceforcepriestsaretherealmasters，andkingsonlytheirministers。
Nowthatthereisandcanbenolongeranexclusivenationalreligion，toleranceshouldbegiventoallreligionsthattolerateothers，solongastheirdogmascontainnothingcontrarytothedutiesofcitizenship。
Butwhoeverdarestosay：OutsidetheChurchisnosalvation，oughttobedrivenfromtheState，unlesstheStateistheChurch，andtheprincethepontiff。Suchadogmaisgoodonlyinatheocraticgovernment;inanyother，itisfatal。ThereasonforwhichHenryIVissaidtohaveembracedtheRomanreligionoughttomakeeveryhonestmanleaveit，andstillmoreanyprincewhoknowshowtoreason。9。CONCLUSIONNowthatIhavelaiddownthetrueprinciplesofpoliticalright，andtriedtogivetheStateabasisofitsowntoreston，Ioughtnexttostrengthenitbyitsexternalrelations，whichwouldincludethelawofnations，commerce，therightofwarandconquest，publicright，leagues，negotiations，treaties，etc。Butallthisformsanewsubjectthatisfartoovastformynarrowscope。Ioughtthroughouttohavekepttoamorelimitedsphere。
34。ThisshouldofcoursebeunderstoodasapplyingtoafreeState;forelsewherefamily，goods，lackofarefuge，necessity，orviolencemaydetainamaninacountryagainsthiswill;
andthenhisdwellingtherenolongerbyitselfimplieshisconsenttothecontractortoitsviolation。
35。AtGenoa，thewordLibertymaybereadoverthefrontoftheprisonsandonthechainsofthegalley-slaves。
Thisapplicationofthedeviceisgoodandjust。Itisindeedonlymalefactorsofallestateswhopreventthecitizenfrombeingfree。Inthecountryinwhichallsuchmenwereinthegalleys，themostperfectlibertywouldbeenjoyed。
36。Isay\"intheCampusMartius\"becauseitwastherethatthecomitiaassembledbycenturies;initstwootherformsthepeopleassembledintheforumorelsewhere;andthenthecapitecensihadasmuchinfluenceandauthorityastheforemostcitizens。
37。Custodes，diribitores，rogatoressuffragiorum。
38。Thenominationwasmadesecretlybynight，asifthereweresomethingshamefulinsettingamanabovethelaws。
39。Thatiswhathecouldnotbesureof，ifheproposedadictator;forhedarednotnominatehimself，andcouldnotbecertainthathiscolleaguewouldnominatehim。
40。ImerelycallattentioninthischaptertoasubjectwithwhichIhavedealtatgreaterlengthinmyLettertoM。d’Alembert。
41。Theywerefromanotherisland，whichthedelicacyofourlanguageforbidsmetonameonthisoccasion。
42。Nonneeaqu？possidetChamosdeustuus，tibijuredebentur？（Judges，11：24。）SuchisthetextintheVulgate。FatherdeCarrièrestranslates：\"Doyounotregardyourselvesashavingarighttowhatyourgodpossesses？\"IdonotknowtheforceoftheHebrewtext：butIperceivethat，intheVulgate，JephthahpositivelyrecognisestherightofthegodChamos，andthattheFrenchtranslatorweakenedthisadmissionbyinsertingan\"accordingtoyou，\"whichisnotintheLatin。
43。ItisquiteclearthatthePhocianWar，whichwascalled\"theSacredWar，\"wasnotawarofreligion。Itsobjectwasthepunishmentofactsofsacrilege，andnottheconquestofunbelievers。
44。Itshouldbenotedthattheclergyfindtheirbondofunionnotsomuchinformalassemblies，asinthecommunionofChurches。Communionandexcommunicationarethesocialcompactoftheclergy，acompactwhichwillalwaysmakethemmastersofpeoplesandkings。
Allpriestswhocommunicatetogetherarefellow-citizens，eveniftheycomefromoppositeendsoftheearth。Thisinventionisamasterpieceofstatesmanship：thereisnothinglikeitamongpaganpriests;whohavethereforeneverformedaclericalcorporatebody。
45。See，forinstance，inaletterfromGrotiustohisbrother（April11，1643），whatthatlearnedmanfoundtopraiseandtoblameintheDeCive。Itistruethat，withabentforindulgence，heseemstopardonthewriterthegoodforthesakeofthebad;butallmenarenotsoforgiving。
46。\"Intherepublic，\"saystheMarquisd’Argenson，\"eachmanisperfectlyfreeinwhatdoesnotharmothers。\"
Thisistheinvariablelimitation，whichitisimpossibletodefinemoreexactly。Ihavenotbeenabletodenymyselfthepleasureofoccasionallyquotingfromthismanuscript，thoughitisunknowntothepublic，inordertodohonourtothememoryofagoodandillustriousman，whohadkeptevenintheMinistrytheheartofagoodcitizen，andviewsonthegovernmentofhiscountrythatweresaneandright。
47。Cæsar，pleadingforCatiline，triedtoestablishthedogmathatthesoulismortal：CatoandCicero，inrefutation，didnotwastetimeinphilosophising。TheywerecontenttoshowthatCæsarspokelikeabadcitizen，andbroughtforwardadoctrinethatwouldhaveabadeffectontheState。This，infact，andnotaproblemoftheology，waswhattheRomansenatehadtojudge。
48。Marriage，forinstance，beingacivilcontract，hascivileffectswithoutwhichsocietycannotevensubsist。
Supposeabodyofclergyshouldclaimthesolerightofpermittingthisact，arightwhicheveryintolerantreligionmustofnecessityclaim，isitnotclearthatinestablishingtheauthorityoftheChurchinthisrespect，itwillbedestroyingthatoftheprince，whowillhavethenceforthonlyasmanysubjectsastheclergychoosetoallowhim？Beinginapositiontomarryornottomarrypeopleaccordingtotheiracceptanceofsuchandsuchadoctrine，theiradmissionorrejectionofsuchandsuchaformula，theirgreaterorlesspiety，theChurchalone，bytheexerciseofprudenceandfirmness，willdisposeofallinheritances，officesandcitizens，andevenoftheStateitself，whichcouldnotsubsistifitwerecomposedentirelyofbastards？But，Ishallbetold，therewillbeappealsonthegroundofabuse，summonsesanddecrees;thetemporalitieswillbeseized。Howsad！Theclergy，howeverlittle，Iwillnotsaycourage，butsenseithas，willtakenonoticeandgoitsway：itwillquietlyallowappeals，summonses，decreesandseizures，and，intheend，willremainthemaster。Itisnot，Ithink，agreatsacrificetogiveupapart，whenoneissureofsecuringall。
Editor’sNotes：E3。Montesquieu，TheSpiritofLaws，II：2
