Cyclops.PublishedbyorderoftheLordsCommissionersoftheAdmiralty，1858.\"TheyhavesinceformedthesubjectofanelaborateMemoirbyMessrs.ParkerandJones，publishedinthePhilosophicalTransactionsfor1865.
Theresultofalltheseoperationsis，thatweknowthecontoursandthenatureofthesurface—soilcoveredbytheNorthAtlantic，foradistanceofseventeenhundredmilesfromeasttowest，aswellasweknowthatofanypartofthedryland.
Itisaprodigiousplain——oneofthewidestandmostevenplainsintheworld.Iftheseaweredrainedoff，youmightdriveawagonallthewayfromValentia，onthewestcoastofIreland，toTrinityBay，inNewfoundland.And，exceptupononesharpinclineabouttwohundredmilesfromValentia，Iamnotquitesurethatitwouldevenbenecessarytoputtheskidon，sogentlearetheascentsanddescentsuponthatlongroute.FromValentiatheroadwouldliedown—hillforabout200milestothepointatwhichthebottomisnowcoveredby1700fathomsofsea—water.Thenwouldcomethecentralplain，morethanathousandmileswide，theinequalitiesofthesurfaceofwhichwouldbehardlyperceptible，thoughthedepthofwateruponitnowvariesfrom10，000to15，000feet;andthereareplacesinwhichMontBlancmightbesunkwithoutshowingitspeakabovewater.Beyondthis，theascentontheAmericansidecommences，andgraduallyleads，forabout300miles，totheNewfoundlandshore.
Almostthewholeofthebottomofthiscentralplain（whichextendsformanyhundredmilesinanorthandsouthdirection）iscoveredbyafinemud，which，whenbroughttothesurface，driesintoagreyish—whitefriablesubstance.Youcanwritewiththisonablackboard，ifyouaresoinclined;and，totheeye，itisquitelikeverysoft，greyishchalk.Examinedchemically，itprovestobecomposedalmostwhollyofcarbonateoflime;andifyoumakeasectionofit，inthesamewayasthatofthepieceofchalkwasmade，andviewitwiththemicroscope，itpresentsinnumerableGlobigerinaeembeddedinagranularmatrix.
Thusthisdeep—seamudissubstantiallychalk.Isaysubstantially，becausethereareagoodmanyminordifferences;butasthesehavenobearingonthequestionimmediatelybeforeus，——
whichisthenatureoftheGlobigerinaeofthechalk，——itisunnecessarytospeakofthem.
Globigerinaeofeverysize，fromthesmallesttothelargest，areassociatedtogetherintheAtlanticmud，andthechambersofmanyarefilledbyasoftanimalmatter.Thissoftsubstanceis，infact，theremainsofthecreaturetowhichtheGlobigerinashell，orratherskeleton，owesitsexistence——andwhichisananimalofthesimplestimaginabledescription.Itis，infact，amereparticleoflivingjelly，withoutdefinedpartsofanykind——
withoutamouth，nerves，muscles，ordistinctorgans，andonlymanifestingitsvitalitytoordinaryobservationbythrustingoutandretractingfromallpartsofitssurface，longfilamentousprocesses，whichserveforarmsandlegs.Yetthisamorphousparticle，devoidofeverythingwhich，inthehigheranimals，wecallorgans，iscapableoffeeding，growingandmultiplying;ofseparatingfromtheoceanthesmallproportionofcarbonateoflimewhichisdissolvedinsea—water;andofbuildingupthatsubstanceintoaskeletonforitself，accordingtoapatternwhichcanbeimitatedbynootherknownagency.
Thenotionthatanimalscanliveandflourishinthesea，atthevastdepthsfromwhichapparentlylivingGlobigerinaehavebeenbroughtup，doesnotagreeverywellwithourusualconceptionsrespectingtheconditionsofanimallife;anditisnotsoabsolutelyimpossibleasitmightatfirstappeartobe，thattheGlobigerinaeoftheAtlanticsea—bottomdonotliveanddiewheretheyarefound.
AsIhavementioned，thesoundingsfromthegreatAtlanticplainarealmostentirelymadeupofGlobigerinae，withthegranuleswhichhavebeenmentionedandsomefewothercalcareousshells;butasmallpercentageofthechalkymud——perhapsatmostsomefivepercentofit——isofadifferentnature，andconsistsofshellsandskeletonscomposedofsilex，orpureflint.ThesesiliciousbodiesbelongpartlytothelowlyvegetableorganismswhicharecalledDiatomaceae，andpartlytotheminute，andextremelysimple，animals，termedRadiolaria.Itisquitecertainthatthesecreaturesdonotliveatthebottomoftheocean，butatitssurface——wheretheymaybeobtainedinprodigiousnumbersbytheuseofaproperlyconstructednet.Henceitfollowsthatthesesiliciousorganisms，thoughtheyarenotheavierthanthelightestdust，musthavefallen，insomecases，throughfifteenthousandfeetofwater，beforetheyreachedtheirfinalresting—placeontheoceanfloor.And，consideringhowlargeasurfacethesebodiesexposeinproportiontotheirweight，itisprobablethattheyoccupyagreatlengthoftimeinmakingtheirburialjourneyfromthesurfaceoftheAtlantictothebottom.
ButiftheRadiolariaandDiatomsarethusraineduponthebottomofthesea，fromthesuperficiallayerofitswatersinwhichtheypasstheirlives，itisobviouslypossiblethattheGlobigerinaemaybesimilarlyderived;andiftheywereso，itwouldbemuchmoreeasytounderstandhowtheyobtaintheirsupplyoffoodthanitisatpresent.Nevertheless，thepositiveandnegativeevidenceallpointstheotherway.Theskeletonsofthefull—grown，deep—
seaGlobigerinaearesoremarkablysolidandheavyinproportiontotheirsurfaceastoseemlittlefittedforfloating;and，asamatteroffact，theyarenottobefoundalongwiththeDiatomsandRadiolaria，intheuppermoststratumoftheopenocean.
Ithasbeenobserved，again，thattheabundanceofGlobigerinae，inproportiontootherorganisms，oflikekind，increaseswiththedepthofthesea;andthatdeep—waterGlobigerinaearelargerthanthosewhichliveinshallowerpartsofthesea;andsuchfactsnegativethesuppositionthattheseorganismshavebeensweptbycurrentsfromtheshallowsintothedeepsoftheAtlantic.
Itthereforeseemstobehardlydoubtfulthatthesewonderfulcreaturesliveanddieatthedepthsinwhichtheyarefound.
However，theimportantpointsforusare，thatthelivingGlobigerinaeareexclusivelymarineanimals，theskeletonsofwhichaboundatthebottomofdeepseas;andthatthereisnotashadowofreasonforbelievingthatthehabitsoftheGlobigerinaeofthechalkdifferedfromthoseoftheexistingspecies.Butifthisbetrue，thereisnoescapingtheconclusionthatthechalkitselfisthedriedmudofanancientdeepsea.
InworkingoverthesoundingscollectedbyCaptainDayman，IwassurprisedtofindthatmanyofwhatIhavecalledthe\"granules\"ofthatmud，werenot，asonemighthavebeentemptedtothinkatfirst，themerepowderandwasteofGlobigerinae，butthattheyhadadefiniteformandsize.Itermedthesebodies\"coccoliths，\"anddoubtedtheirorganicnature.Dr.Wallich[65]verifiedmyobservation，andaddedtheinterestingdiscovery，that，notunfrequently，bodiessimilartothese\"coccoliths\"wereaggregatedtogetherintospheroids，whichhetermed\"coccospheres.\"Sofarasweknew，thesebodies，thenatureofwhichisextremelypuzzlingandproblematical，werepeculiartotheAtlanticsoundings.
But，afewyearsago，Mr.Sorby，[66]inmakingacarefulexaminationofthechalkbymeansofthinsectionsandotherwise，observed，asEhrenberghaddonebeforehim，thatmuchofitsgranularbasispossessesadefiniteform.ComparingtheseformedparticleswiththoseintheAtlanticsoundings，hefoundthetwotobeidentical;
andthusprovedthatthechalk，likethesoundings，containsthesemysteriouscoccolithsandcoccospheres.Herewasafurtherandamostinterestingconfirmation，frominternalevidence，oftheessentialidentityofthechalkwithmoderndeep—seamud.
Globigerinae，coccoliths，andcoccospheresareroundasthechiefconstituentsofboth，andtestifytothegeneralsimilarityoftheconditionsunderwhichbothhavebeenformed.
Theevidencefurnishedbythehewing，facing，andsuperpositionofthestonesofthePyramids，thatthesestructureswerebuiltbymen，hasnogreaterweightthantheevidencethatthechalkwasbuiltbyGlobigerinae;andthebeliefthatthoseancientpyramid—
builderswereterrestrialandair—breathingcreatureslikeourselves，isitnotbetterbasedthantheconvictionthatthechalk—makerslivedinthesea？
ButasourbeliefinthebuildingofthePyramidsbymenisnotonlygroundedontheinternalevidencesaffordedbythesestructures，butgathersstrengthfrommultitudinouscollateralproofs，andisclinchedbythetotalabsenceofanyreasonforacontrarybelief;sotheevidencedrawnfromtheGlobigerinaethatthechalkisanancientsea—bottom，isfortifiedbyinnumerableindependentlinesofevidence;andourbeliefinthetruthoftheconclusiontowhichallpositivetestimonytends，receivesthelikenegativejustificationfromthefactthatnootherhypothesishasashadowoffoundation.
Itmaybeworthwhilebrieflytoconsiderafewofthesecollateralproofsthatthechalkwasdepositedatthebottomofthesea.
Thegreatmassofthechalkiscomposed，aswehaveseen，oftheskeletonsofGlobigerinae，andothersimpleorganisms，imbeddedingranularmatter.Hereandthere，however，thishardenedmudoftheancientsearevealstheremainsofhigheranimalswhichhavelivedanddied，andlefttheirhardpartsinthemud，justastheoystersdieandleavetheirshellsbehindthem，inthemudofthepresentseas.
Thereare，atthepresentday，certaingroupsofanimalswhichareneverfoundinfreshwaters，beingunabletoliveanywherebutinthesea.Sucharethecorals;thosecorallineswhicharecalledPolycoa;thosecreatureswhichfabricatethelamp—shells，andarecalledBrachiopoda;thepearlyNautilus，andallanimalsalliedtoit;andalltheformsofsea—urchinsandstar—fishes.
Notonlyareallthesecreaturesconfinedtosaltwateratthepresentday;but，sofarasourrecordsofthepastgo，theconditionsoftheirexistencehavebeenthesame：hence，theiroccurrenceinanydepositisasstrongevidenceascanbeobtained，thatthatdepositwasformedinthesea.Nowtheremainsofanimalsofallthekindswhichhavebeenenumerated，occurinthechalk，ingreaterorlessabundance;whilenotoneofthoseformsofshell—fishwhicharecharacteristicoffreshwaterhasyetbeenobservedinit.
Whenweconsiderthattheremainsofmorethanthreethousanddistinctspeciesofaquaticanimalshavebeendiscoveredamongthefossilsofthechalk，thatthegreatmajorityofthemareofsuchformsasarenowmetwithonlyinthesea，andthatthereisnoreasontobelievethatanyoneoftheminhabitedfreshwater——thecollateralevidencethatthechalkrepresentsanancientsea—bottomacquiresasgreatforceastheproofderivedfromthenatureofthechalkitself.IthinkyouwillnowallowthatIdidnotoverstatemycasewhenIassertedthatwehaveasstronggroundsforbelievingthatallthevastareaofdryland，atpresentoccupiedbythechalk，wasonceatthebottomofthesea，aswehaveforanymatterofhistorywhatever;whilethereisnojustificationforanyotherbelief.
Nolesscertainitisthatthetimeduringwhichthecountrieswenowcallsouth—eastEngland，France，Germany，Poland，Russia，Egypt，Arabia，Syria，weremoreorlesscompletelycoveredbyadeepsea，wasofconsiderableduration.
Wehavealreadyseenthatthechalkis，inplaces，morethanathousandfeetthick.Ithinkyouwillagreewithme，thatitmusthavetakensometimefortheskeletonsofanimalculesofahundredthofaninchindiametertoheapupsuchamassasthat.I
havesaidthatthroughoutthethicknessofthechalktheremainsofotheranimalsarescattered.Theseremainsareofteninthemostexquisitestateofpreservation.Thevalvesoftheshell—fishesarecommonlyadherent;thelongspinesofsomeofthesea—urchins，whichwouldbedetachedbythesmallestjar，oftenremainintheirplaces.Inaword，itiscertainthattheseanimalshavelivedanddiedwhentheplacewhichtheynowoccupywasthesurfaceofasmuchofthechalkashadthenbeendeposited;andthateachhasbeencoveredupbythelayerofGlobigerinamud，uponwhichthecreaturesimbeddedalittlehigheruphave，inlikemanner，livedanddied.Butsomeoftheseremainsprovetheexistenceofreptilesofvastsizeinthechalksea.Theselivedtheirtime，andhadtheirancestorsanddescendants，whichassuredlyimpliestime，reptilesbeingofslowgrowth.
Thereismorecuriousevidence，again，thattheprocessofcoveringup，or，inotherwords，thedepositofGlobigerinaskeletons，didnotgoonveryfast.Itisdemonstrablethatananimalofthecretaceousseamightdie，thatitsskeletonmightlieuncovereduponthesea—bottomlongenoughtoloseallitsoutwardcoveringsandappendagesbyputrefaction;andthat，afterthishadhappened，anotheranimalmightattachitselftothedeadandnakedskeleton，mightgrowtomaturity，andmightitselfdiebeforethecalcareousmudhadburiedthewhole.
CasesofthiskindareadmirablydescribedbySirCharlesLyell.[67]
Hespeaksofthefrequencywithwhichgeologistsfindinthechalkafossilizedsea—urchin，towhichisattachedthelowervalveofaCrania.Thisisakindofshell—fish，withashellcomposedoftwopieces，ofwhich，asintheoyster，oneisfixedandtheotherfree.
\"Theuppervalveisalmostinvariablywanting，thoughoccasionallyfoundinaperfectstateofpreservationinthewhitechalkatsomedistance.Inthiscase，weseeclearlythatthesea—urchinfirstlivedfromyouthtoage，thendiedandlostitsspines，whichwerecarriedaway.ThentheyoungCraniaadheredtothebaredshell，grewandperishedinitsturn;afterwhich，theuppervalvewasseparatedfromthelower，beforetheEchinus[68]becameenvelopedinchalkymud.\"
AspecimenintheMuseumofPracticalGeology，inLondon，stillfurtherprolongstheperiodwhichmusthaveelapsedbetweenthedeathofthesea—urchin，anditsburialbytheGlobigerinae.FortheoutwardfaceofthevalveofaCrania，whichisattachedtoasea—urchin（Micraster），isitselfoverrunbyanincrustingcoralline，whichspreadsthenceovermoreorlessofthesurfaceofthesea—urchin.Itfollowsthat，aftertheuppervalveoftheCraniafelloff，thesurfaceoftheattachedvalvemusthaveremainedexposedlongenoughtoallowofthegrowthofthewholecorraline，sincecorallinesdonotliveimbeddedinmud.
Theprogressofknowledgemay，oneday，enableustodeducefromsuchfactsasthesethemaximumrateatwhichthechalkcanhaveaccumulated，andthustoarriveattheminimumdurationofthechalkperiod.SupposethatthevalveoftheCraniauponwhichacorallinehasfixeditselfinthewayjustdescribed，issoattachedtothesea—urchinthatnopartofitismorethananinchabovethefaceuponwhichthesea—urchinrests.Then，asthecorallinecouldnothavefixeditself，iftheCraniahadbeencoveredupwithchalkmud，andcouldnothavelivedhaditselfbeensocovereditfollows，thataninchofchalkmudcouldnothaveaccumulatedwithinthetimebetweenthedeathanddecayofthesoftpartsofthesea—urchinandthegrowthofthecorallinetothefullsizewhichithasattained.Ifthedecayofthesoftpartsofthesea—urchin;theattachment，growthtomaturity，anddecayoftheCrania;andthesubsequentattachmentandgrowthofthecoralline，tookayear（whichisalowestimateenough），theaccumulationoftheinchofchalkmusthavetakenmorethanayear：andthedepositofathousandfeetofchalkmust，consequently，havetakenmorethantwelvethousandyears.
Thefoundationofallthiscalculationis，ofcourse，aknowledgeofthelengthoftimetheCraniaandthecorallineneededtoattaintheirfullsize;and，onthishead，preciseknowledgeisatpresentwanting.Buttherearecircumstanceswhichtendtoshow，thatnothinglikeaninchofchalkhasaccumulatedduringthelifeofaCrania;and，onanyprobableestimateofthelengthofthatlife，thechalkperiodmusthavehadamuchlongerdurationthanthatthusroughlyassignedtoit.
Thus，notonlyisitcertainthatthechalkisthemudofanancientsea—bottom;butitisnolesscertain，thatthechalkseaexistedduringanextremelylongperiod，thoughwemaynotbepreparedtogiveapreciseestimateofthelengthofthatperiodinyears.Therelativedurationisclear，thoughtheabsolutedurationmaynotbedefinable.Theattempttoaffixanyprecisedatetotheperiodatwhichthechalkseabegan，orended，itsexistence，isbaffledbydifficultiesofthesamekind.Buttherelativeageofthecretaceousepochmaybedeterminedwithasgreateaseandcertaintyasthelongdurationofthatepoch.
Youwillhaveheardoftheinterestingdiscoveriesrecentlymade，invariouspartsofWesternEurope，offlintimplements，obviouslyworkedintoshapebyhumanhands，undercircumstanceswhichshowconclusivelythatmanisaveryancientdenizenoftheseregions.
IthasbeenprovedthattheoldpopulationsofEurope，whoseexistencehasbeenrevealedtousinthisway，consistedofsavages，suchastheEsquimauxarenow;that，inthecountrywhichisnowFrance，theyhuntedthereindeer，andwerefamiliarwiththewaysofthemammothandthebison.ThephysicalgeographyofFrancewasinthosedaysdifferentfromwhatitisnow——theriverSomme，[69]forinstance，havingcutitsbedahundredfeetdeeperbetweenthattimeandthis;and，itisprobable，thattheclimatewasmorelikethatofCanadaorSiberia，thanthatofWesternEurope.
Theexistenceofthesepeopleisforgotteneveninthetraditionsoftheoldesthistoricalnations.Thenameandfameofthemhadutterlyvanisheduntilafewyearsback;andtheamountofphysicalchangewhichhasbeeneffectedsincetheirday，rendersitmorethanprobablethat，venerableasaresomeofthehistoricalnations，theworkersofthechippedflintsofHoxneorofAmiens[70]
aretothem，astheyaretous，inpointofantiquity.
But，ifweassigntothesehoarrelicsoflong—vanishedgenerationsofmenthegreatestagethatcanpossiblybeclaimedforthem，theyarenotolderthanthedrift，orboulderclay，which，incomparisonwiththechalk，isbutaveryjuveniledeposit.Youneedgonofurtherthanyourownsea—boardforevidenceofthisfact.AtoneofthemostcharmingspotsonthecoastofNorfolk，Cromer，youwillseetheboulderclayformingavastmass，whichliesuponthechalk，andmustconsequentlyhavecomeintoexistenceafterit.
Hugebouldersofchalkare，infact，includedintheclay，andhaveevidentlybeenbroughttothepositiontheynowoccupy，bythesameagencyasthatwhichhasplantedblocksofsyenitefromNorwaysidebysidewiththem.
Thechalk，then，iscertainlyolderthantheboulderclay.Ifyouaskhowmuch，Iwillagaintakeyounofurtherthanthesamespotuponyourowncoastsforevidence.Ihavespokenoftheboulderclayanddriftasrestinguponthechalk.Thatisnotstrictlytrue.Interposedbetweenthechalkandthedriftisacomparativelyinsignificantlayer，containingvegetablematter.
Butthatlayertellsawonderfulhistory.Itisfullofstumpsoftreesstandingastheygrew.Fir—treesaretherewiththeircones，andhazel—busheswiththeirnuts;therestandthestoolsofoakandyewtrees，beechesandalders.Hencethisstratumisappropriatelycalledthe\"forest—bed.\"
Itisobviousthatthechalkmusthavebeenup—heavedandconvertedintodryland，beforethetimbertreescouldgrowuponit.Asthebolesofsomeofthesetreesarefromtwotothreefeetindiameter，itisnolessclearthatthedrylandthisformedremainedinthesameconditionforlongages.Andnotonlydotheremainsofstatelyoaksandwell—grownfirstestifytothedurationofthisconditionofthings，butadditionalevidencetothesameeffectisaffordedbytheabundantremainsofelephants，rhinoceroses，hippopotomusesandothergreatwildbeasts，whichithasyieldedtothezealoussearchofsuchmenastheRev.Mr.Gunn.[71]
Whenyoulookatsuchacollectionashehasformed，andbethinkyouthattheseelephantinebonesdidveritablycarrytheirownersabout，andthesegreatgrinderscrunch，inthedarkwoodsofwhichtheforest—bedisnowtheonlytrace，itisimpossiblenottofeelthattheyareasgoodevidenceofthelapseoftimeastheannualringsofthetree—stumps.
ThusthereisawritinguponthewallsofcliffsatCromer，andwhosorunsmayreadit.Ittellsus，withanauthoritywhichcannotbeimpeached，thattheancientsea—bedofthechalkseawasraisedup，andremaineddryland，untilitwascoveredwithforest，stockedwiththegreatgamewhosespoilshaverejoicedyourgeologists.Howlongitremainedinthatconditioncannotbesaid;
but\"thewhirligigoftime[72]broughtitsrevenges\"inthosedaysasinthese.Thatdryland，withthebonesandteethofgenerationsoflong—livedelephants，hiddenawayamongthegnarledrootsanddryleavesofitsancienttrees，sankgraduallytothebottomoftheicysea，whichcovereditwithhugemassesofdriftandboulderclay.Sea—beasts，suchasthewalrus，nowrestrictedtotheextremenorth，paddledaboutwherebirdshadtwitteredamongthetopmosttwigsofthefir—trees.Howlongthisstateofthingsenduredweknownot，butatlengthitcametoanend.TheupheavedglacialmudhardenedintothesoilofmodernNorfolk.Forestsgrewoncemore，thewolfandthebeaverreplacedthereindeerandtheelephant;andatlengthwhatwecallthehistoryofEnglanddawned.
Thusyouhavewithinthelimitsofyourowncounty，proofthatthechalkcanjustlyclaimaverymuchgreaterantiquitythaneventheoldestphysicaltracesofmankind.Butwemaygofurtheranddemonstrate，byevidenceofthesameauthorityasthatwhichtestifiestotheexistenceofthefatherofmen，thatthechalkisvastlyolderthanAdamhimself.
TheBookofGenesisinformsusthatAdam，immediatelyuponhiscreation，andbeforetheappearanceofEve，wasplacedintheGardenofEden.TheproblemofthegeographicalpositionofEdenhasgreatlyvexedthespiritsofthelearnedinsuchmatters，butthereisonepointrespectingwhich，sofarasIknow，nocommentatorhaseverraisedadoubt.Thisis，thatofthefourriverswhicharesaidtorunoutofit，EuphratesandHiddekel[73]
areidenticalwiththeriversnowknownbythenamesofEuphratesandTigris.
Butthewholecountryinwhichthesemightyriverstaketheirorigin，andthroughwhichtheyrun，iscomposedofrockswhichareeitherofthesameageasthechalk，oroflaterdate.Sothatthechalkmustnotonlyhavebeenformed，but，afteritsformation，thetimerequiredforthedepositoftheselaterrocks，andfortheirupheavalintodryland，musthaveelapsed，beforethesmallestbrookwhichfeedstheswiftstreamof\"thegreatriver，theriverofBabylon，\"[74]begantoflow.
Thus，evidencewhichcannotberebutted，andwhichneednotbestrengthened，thoughiftimepermittedImightindefinitelyincreaseitsquantity，compelsyoutobelievethattheearth，fromthetimeofthechalktothepresentday，hasbeenthetheatreofaseriesofchangesasvastintheiramount，astheywereslowintheirprogress.Theareaonwhichwestandhasbeenfirstseaandthenland，foratleastfouralternations;andhasremainedineachoftheseconditionsforaperiodofgreatlength.
Norhavethesewonderfulmetamorphosesofseaintoland，andoflandintosea，beenconfinedtoonecornerofEngland.Duringthechalkperiod，or\"cretaceousepoch，\"notoneofthepresentgreatphysicalfeaturesoftheglobewasinexistence.Ourgreatmountainranges，Pyrenees，Alps，Himalayas，Andes，haveallbeenupheavedsincethechalkwasdeposited，andthecretaceousseaflowedoverthesitesofSinaiandArarat.
Allthisiscertain，becauserocksofcretaceous，orstilllater，datehavesharedintheelevatorymovementswhichgaverisetothesemountainchains;andmaybefoundperchedup，insomecases，manythousandfeethighupontheirflanks.Andevidenceofequalcogencydemonstratesthat，though，inNorfolk，theforest—bedrestsdirectlyuponthechalk，yetitdoesso，notbecausetheperiodatwhichtheforestgrewimmediatelyfollowedthatatwhichthechalkwasformed，butbecauseanimmenselapseoftime，representedelsewherebythousandsoffeetofrock，isnotindicatedatCromer.
Imustaskyoutobelievethatthereisnolessconclusiveproofthatastillmoreprolongedsuccessionofsimilarchangesoccurred，beforethechalkwasdeposited.Norhaveweanyreasontothinkthatthefirsttermintheseriesofthesechangesisknown.Theoldestsea—bedspreservedtousaresands，andmud，andpebbles，thewearandtearofrockswhichwereformedinstillolderoceans.
But，greatasisthemagnitudeofthesephysicalchangesoftheworld，theyhavebeenaccompaniedbyanolessstrikingseriesofmodificationsinitslivinginhabitants.
Allthegreatclassesofanimals，beastsofthefield，fowlsoftheair，creepingthings，andthingswhichdwellinthewaters，flourishedupontheglobelongagesbeforethechalkwasdeposited.
Veryfew，however，ifany，oftheseancientformsofanimallifewereidenticalwiththosewhichnowlive.Certainlynotoneofthehigheranimalswasofthesamespeciesasanyofthosenowinexistence.Thebeastsofthefield，inthedaysbeforethechalk，werenotourbeastsofthefield，northefowlsoftheairsuchasthosewhichtheeyeofmenhasseenflying，unlesshisantiquitydatesinfinitelyfurtherbackthanweatpresentsurmise.Ifwecouldbecarriedbackintothosetimes，weshouldbeasonesuddenlysetdowninAustraliabeforeitwascolonized.Weshouldseemammals，birds，reptiles，fishes，insects，snails，andthelike，clearlyrecognisableassuch，andyetnotoneofthemwouldbejustthesameasthosewithwhichwearefamiliar，andmanywouldbeextremelydifferent.
Fromthattimetothepresent，thepopulationoftheworldhasundergoneslowandgradual，butincessantchanges.Therehasbeennograndcatastrophe——nodestroyerhassweptawaytheformsoflifeofoneperiod，andreplacedthembyatotallynewcreation;butonespecieshasvanishedandanotherhastakenitsplace;creaturesofonetypeofstructurehavediminished，thoseofanotherhaveincreased，astimehaspassedon.Andthus，whilethedifferencesbetweenthelivingcreaturesofthetimebeforethechalkandthoseofthepresentdayappearstartling，ifplacedsidebyside，weareledfromonetotheotherbythemostgradualprogress，ifwefollowthecourseofNaturethroughthewholeseriesofthoserelicsofheroperationswhichshehasleftbehind.
Anditisbythepopulationofthechalkseathattheancientandthemoderninhabitantsoftheworldaremostcompletelyconnected.
Thegroupswhicharedyingoutflourish，sidebyside，withthegroupswhicharenowthedominantformsoflife.
Thusthechalkcontainsremainsofthosestrangeflyingandswimmingreptiles，thepterodactyl，theichthyosaurus，andtheplesiosaurus，whicharefoundinnolaterdeposits，butaboundedinprecedingages.Thechamberedshellscalledammonitesandbelemnites，whicharesocharacteristicoftheperiodprecedingthecretaceous，inlikemannerdiewithit.
But，amongstthesefadingremaindersofapreviousstateofthings，aresomeverymodernformsoflife，lookinglikeYankeepedlarsamongatribeofRedIndians.Crocodilesofmoderntypeappear;
bonyfishes，manyofthemverysimilartoexistingspeciesalmostsupplanttheformsoffishwhichpredominateinmoreancientseas;
andmanykindsoflivingshellfishfirstbecomeknowntousinthechalk.Thevegetationacquiresamodernaspect.Afewlivinganimalsarenotevendistinguishableasspecies，fromthosewhichexistedatthatremoteepoch.TheGlobigerinaofthepresentday，forexample，isnotdifferentspecificallyfromthatofthechalk;
andthesamemaybesaidofmanyotherForaminifera.Ithinkitprobablethatcriticalandunprejudicedexaminationwillshowthatmorethanonespeciesofmuchhigheranimalshavehadasimilarlongevity;buttheonlyexample，whichIcanatpresentgiveconfidentlyisthesnake’s—headlamp—shell（Terebratulinacaputserpentis），whichlivesinourEnglishseasandabounded（asTerebratulinastriataofauthors）inthechalk.
Thelongestlineofhumanancestrymusthideitsdiminishedheadbeforethepedigreeofthisinsignificantshell—fish.WeEnglishmenareproudtohaveanancestorwhowaspresentattheBattleofHastings.TheancestorsofTerebratulinacaputserpentismayhavebeenpresentatabattleofIchthyosauriainthatpartoftheseawhich，whenthechalkwasforming，flowedoverthesiteofHastings.Whileallaroundhaschanged，thisTerebratulinahaspeacefullypropagateditsspeciesfromgenerationtogeneration，andstandstothisday，asalivingtestimonytothecontinuityofthepresentwiththepasthistoryoftheglobe.
UptothismomentIhavestated，sofarasIknow，nothingbutwell—authenticatedfacts，andtheimmediateconclusionswhichtheyforceuponthemind.
Butthemindissoconstitutedthatitdoesnotwillinglyrestinfactsandimmediatecauses，butseeksalwaysafteraknowledgeoftheremoterlinksinthechainofcausation.
Takingthemanychangesofanygivenspotoftheearth’ssurface，fromseatolandandfromlandtosea，asanestablishedfact，wecannotrefrainfromaskingourselveshowthesechangeshaveoccurred.Andwhenwehaveexplainedthem——astheymustbeexplained——bythealternateslowmovementsofelevationanddepressionwhichhaveaffectedthecrustoftheearth，wegostillfurtherback，andask，Whythesemovements？
Iamnotcertainthatanyonecangiveyouasatisfactoryanswertothatquestion.AssuredlyIcannot.Allthatcanbesaid，forcertain，is，thatsuchmovementsarepartoftheordinarycourseofnature，inasmuchastheyaregoingonatthepresenttime.Directproofmaybegiven，thatsomepartsofthelandofthenorthernhemisphereareatthismomentinsensiblyrisingandothersinsensiblysinking;andthereisindirect，butperfectlysatisfactory，proof，thatanenormousareanowcoveredbythePacifichasbeendeepenedthousandsoffeet，sincethepresentinhabitantsofthatseacameintoexistence.
Thusthereisnotashadowofareasonforbelievingthatthephysicalchangesoftheglobe，inpasttimeshavebeeneffectedbyotherthannaturalcauses.
Isthereanymorereasonforbelievingthattheconcomitantmodificationsintheformsofthelivinginhabitantsoftheglobehavebeenbroughtaboutinotherways？
Beforeattemptingtoanswerthisquestion，letustrytoformadistinctmentalpictureofwhathashappened，insomespecialcase.
Thecrocodilesareanimalswhich，asagroup，haveaveryvastantiquity.Theyaboundedagesbeforethechalkwasdeposited;theythrongtheriversinwarmclimates，atthepresentday.Thereisadifferenceintheformofthejointsoftheback—bone，andinsomeminorparticulars，betweenthecrocodilesofthepresentepochandthosewhichlivedbeforethechalk;butinthecretaceousepoch，asIhavealreadymentioned，thecrocodileshadassumedthemoderntypeofstructure.Notwithstandingthis，thecrocodilesofthechalkarenotidenticallythesameasthosewhichlivedinthetimescalled\"oldertertiary，\"whichsucceededthecretaceousepoch;andthecrocodilesoftheoldertertiariesarenotidenticalwiththoseofthenewertertiaries，noraretheseidenticalwithexistingforms.Ileaveopenthequestionwhetherparticularspeciesmayhavelivedonfromepochtoepoch.Buteachepochhashaditspeculiarcrocodiles;thoughall，sincethechalk，havebelongedtothemoderntype，anddiffersimplyintheirproportions，andinsuchstructuralparticularsasarediscernibleonlytotrainedeyes.
Howistheexistenceofthislongsuccessionofdifferentspeciesofcrocodilestobeaccountedfor？
Onlytwosuppositionsseemtobeopentous——Eithereachspeciesofcrocodilehasbeenspeciallycreated，orithasarisenoutofsomepre—existingformbytheoperationofnaturalcauses.
Chooseyourhypothesis;Ihavechosenmine.Icanfindnowarrantyforbelievinginthedistinctcreationofascoreofsuccessivespeciesofcrocodilesinthecourseofcountlessagesoftime.
Sciencegivesnocountenancetosuchawildfancy;norcaneventheperverseingenuityofacommentatorpretendtodiscoverthissense，inthesimplewordsinwhichthewriterofGenesisrecordstheproceedingsofthefifthandsixthdaysoftheCreation.
Ontheotherhand，Iseenogoodreasonfordoubtingthenecessaryalternative，thatallthesevariedspecieshavebeenevolvedfrompre—existingcrocodilianforms，bytheoperationofcausesascompletelyapartofthecommonorderofnature，asthosewhichhaveeffectedthechangesoftheinorganicworld.
Fewwillventuretoaffirmthatthereasoningwhichappliestocrocodileslosesitsforceamongotheranimals，oramongplants.
Ifoneseriesofspecieshascomeintoexistencebytheoperationofnaturalcauses，itseemsfollytodenythatallmayhaveariseninthesameway.
Asmallbeginninghasledustoagreatending.IfIweretoputthebitofchalkwithwhichwestartedintothehotbutobscureflameofburninghydrogen，itwouldpresentlyshinelikethesun.
Itseemstomethatthisphysicalmetamorphosisisnofalseimageofwhathasbeentheresultofoursubjectingittoajetoffervent，thoughnowisebrilliant，thoughtto—night.Ithasbecomeluminous，anditsclearrays，penetratingtheabyssoftheremotepast，havebroughtwithinourkensomestagesoftheevolutionoftheearth.Andintheshifting\"withouthaste，butwithoutrest\"[75]
ofthelandandsea，asintheendlessvariationoftheformsassumedbylivingbeings，wehaveobservednothingbutthenaturalproductoftheforcesoriginallypossessedbythesubstanceoftheuniverse.
THEPRINCIPALSUBJECTSOFEDUCATION[76]
Iknowquitewellthatlaunchingmyselfintothisdiscussion[77]isaverydangerousoperation;thatitisaverylargesubject，andonewhichisdifficulttodealwith，howevermuchImaytrespassuponyourpatienceinthetimeallottedtome.Butthediscussionissofundamental，itissocompletelyimpossibletomakeupone’smindonthesemattersuntilonehassettledthequestion，thatIwillevenventuretomaketheexperiment.Agreatlawyer—statesmanandphilosopherofaformerage——ImeanFrancisBacon[78]——saidthattruthcameoutoferrormuchmorerapidlythanitcameoutofconfusion.
Thereisawonderfultruthinthatsaying.Nexttobeingrightinthisworld，thebestofallthingsistobeclearlyanddefinitelywrong，becauseyouwillcomeoutsomewhere.Ifyougobuzzingaboutbetweenrightandwrong，vibratingandfluctuating，youcomeoutnowhere;butifyouareabsolutelyandthoroughlyandpersistentlywrong，youmust，someofthesedays，havetheextremegoodfortuneofknockingyourheadagainstafact，andthatsetsyouallstraightagain.SoIwillnottroublemyselfastowhetherImayberightorwronginwhatIamabouttosay，butatanyrateIhopetobeclearanddefinite;andthenyouwillbeabletojudgeforyourselveswhether，infollowingoutthetrainofthoughtI
havetointroduce，youknockyourheadsagainstfactsornot.
Itakeitthatthewholeobjectofeducationis，inthefirstplace，totrainthefacultiesoftheyounginsuchamannerastogivetheirpossessorsthebestchanceofbeinghappy[79]andusefulintheirgeneration;and，inthesecondplace，tofurnishthemwiththemostimportantportionsofthatimmensecapitalisedexperienceofthehumanracewhichwecallknowledgeofvariouskinds.Iamusingthetermknowledgeinitswidestpossiblesense;andthequestionis，whatsubjectstoselectbytraininganddiscipline，inwhichtheobjectIhavejustdefinedmaybebestattained.
Imustcallyourattentionfurthertothisfact，thatallthesubjectsofourthoughts——allfeelingsandpropositions（leavingasideoursensationsasthemerematerialsandoccasionsofthinkingandfeeling），allourmentalfurniture——maybeclassifiedunderoneoftwoheads——aseitherwithintheprovinceoftheintellect，somethingthatcanbeputintopropositionsandaffirmedordenied;oraswithintheprovinceoffeeling，orthatwhich，beforethenamewasdefiled，wascalledtheaestheticsideofournature，andwhichcanneitherbeprovednordisproved，butonlyfeltandknown.
AccordingtotheclassificationwhichIhaveputbeforeyou，then，thesubjectsofallknowledgearedivisibleintothetwogroups，mattersofscienceandmattersofart;forallthingswithwhichthereasoningfacultyaloneisoccupied，comeundertheprovinceofscience;andinthebroadestsense，andnotinthenarrowandtechnicalsenseinwhichwearenowaccustomedtousethewordart，allthingsfeelable，allthingswhichstirouremotions，comeunderthetermofart，inthesenseofthesubject—matteroftheaestheticfaculty.Sothatweareshutuptothis——thatthebusinessofeducationis，inthefirstplace，toprovidetheyoungwiththemeansandthehabitofobservation;and，secondly，tosupplythesubject—matterofknowledgeeitherintheshapeofscienceorofart，orofbothcombined.
Now，itisaveryremarkablefact——butitistrueofmostthingsinthisworld——thatthereishardlyanythingone—sided，orofonenature;anditisnotimmediatelyobviouswhatofthethingsthatinterestusmayberegardedaspurescience，andwhatmayberegardedaspureart.Itmaybethattherearesomepeculiarlyconstitutedpersonswho，beforetheyhaveadvancedfarintothedepthsofgeometry，findartisticbeautyaboutit;but，takingthegeneralityofmankind，Ithinkitmaybesaidthat，whentheybegintolearnmathematics，theirwholesoulsareabsorbedintracingtheconnectionbetweenthepremissesandtheconclusion，andthattothemgeometryispurescience.SoIthinkitmaybesaidthatmechanicsandosteologyarepurescience.Ontheotherhand，melodyinmusicispureart.Youcannotreasonaboutit;thereisnopropositioninvolvedinit.So，again，inthepictorialart，anarabesque，ora\"harmonyingrey，\"[80]touchesnonebuttheaestheticfaculty.Butagreatmathematician，andevenmanypersonswhoarenotgreatmathematicians，willtellyouthattheyderiveimmensepleasurefromgeometricalreasonings.Everybodyknowsmathematiciansspeakofsolutionsandproblemsas\"elegant，\"andtheytellyouthatacertainmassofmysticsymbolsis\"beautiful，quitelovely.\"Well，youdonotseeit.Theydoseeit，becausetheintellectualprocess，theprocessofcomprehendingthereasonssymbolisedbythesefiguresandthesesigns，confersuponthemasortofpleasure，suchasanartisthasinvisualsymmetry.TakeascienceofwhichImayspeakwithmoreconfidence，andwhichisthemostattractiveofthoseIamconcernedwith.Itiswhatwecallmorphology，whichconsistsintracingouttheunityinvarietyoftheinfinitelydiversifiedstructuresofanimalsandplants.I
cannotgiveyouanyexampleofathoroughaestheticpleasuremoreintenselyrealthanapleasureofthiskind——thepleasurewhicharisesinone’smindwhenawholemassofdifferentstructuresrunintooneharmonyastheexpressionofacentrallaw.Thatiswheretheprovinceofartoverlaysandembracestheprovinceofintellect.And，ifImayventuretoexpressanopiniononsuchasubject，thegreatmajorityofformsofartarenotinthesensewhatIjustnowdefinedthemtobe——pureart;buttheyderivemuchoftheirqualityfromsimultaneousandevenunconsciousexcitementoftheintellect.
WhenIwasaboy，Iwasveryfondofmusic，andIamsonow;anditsohappenedthatIhadtheopportunityofhearingmuchgoodmusic.
Amongotherthings，Ihadabundantopportunitiesofhearingthatgreatoldmaster，SebastianBach.Irememberperfectlywell——
thoughIknewnothingaboutmusicthen，and，Imayadd，knownothingwhateveraboutitnow——theintensesatisfactionanddelightwhichIhadinlistening，bythehourtogether，toBach’sfugues.
Itisapleasurewhichremainswithme，Iamgladtothink;but，oflateyears，Ihavetriedtofindoutthewhyandwherefore，andithasoftenoccurredtomethatthepleasurederivedfrommusicalcompositionsofthiskindisessentiallyofthesamenatureasthatwhichisderivedfrompursuitswhicharecommonlyregardedaspurelyintellectual.Imean，thatthesourceofpleasureisexactlythesameasinmostofmyproblemsinmorphology——thatyouhavethethemeinoneoftheoldmaster’sworksfollowedoutinallitsendlessvariations，alwaysappearingandalwaysremindingyouofunityinvariety.Soinpainting;whatiscalled\"truthtonature\"istheintellectualelementcomingin，andtruthtonaturedependsentirelyupontheintellectualcultureofthepersontowhomartisaddressed.IfyouareinAustralia，youmaygetcreditforbeingagoodartist——Imeanamongthenatives——ifyoucandrawakangarooafterafashion.But，amongmenofhighercivilisation，theintellectualknowledgewepossessbringsitscriticismintoourappreciationofworksofart，andweareobligedtosatisfyit，aswellasthemeresenseofbeautyincolourandinoutline.Andso，thehigherthecultureandinformationofthosewhomartaddresses，themoreexactandprecisemustbewhatwecallits\"truthtonature.\"
Ifweturntoliterature，thesamethingistrue，andyoufindworksofliteraturewhichmaybesaidtobepureart.AlittlesongofShakespeareorofGoetheispureart;itisexquisitelybeautiful，althoughitsintellectualcontentmaybenothing.A
seriesofpicturesismadetopassbeforeyourmindbythemeaningofwords，andtheeffectisamelodyofideas.Nevertheless，thegreatmassoftheliteratureweesteemisvalued，notmerelybecauseofhavingartisticform，butbecauseofitsintellectualcontent;andthevalueisthehigherthemoreprecise，distinct，andtrueisthatintellectualcontent.And，ifyouwillletmeforamomentspeakoftheveryhighestformsofliterature，dowenotregardthemashighestsimplybecausethemoreweknowthetruertheyseem，andthemorecompetentwearetoappreciatebeautythemorebeautifultheyare？NomaneverunderstandsShakespeareuntilheisold，thoughtheyoungestmayadmirehim，thereasonbeingthathesatisfiestheartisticinstinctoftheyoungestandharmoniseswiththeripestandrichestexperienceoftheoldest.
Ihavesaidthismuchtodrawyourattentiontowhat，inmymind，liesattherootofallthismatter，andattheunderstandingofoneanotherbythemenofscienceontheonehand，andthemenofliterature，andhistory，andart，ontheother.Itisnotaquestionwhetheroneorderofstudyoranothershouldpredominate.
Itisaquestionofwhattopicsofeducationyoushallselectwhichwillcombinealltheneedfulelementsinsuchdueproportionastogivethegreatestamountoffood，support，andencouragementtothosefacultieswhichenableustoappreciatetruth，andtoprofitbythosesourcesofinnocenthappinesswhichareopentous，and，atthesametime，toavoidthatwhichisbad，andcoarse，andugly，andkeepclearofthemultitudeofpitfallsanddangerswhichbesetthosewhobreakthroughthenaturalormorallaws.
Iaddressmyself，inthisspirit，totheconsiderationofthequestionofthevalueofpurelyliteraryeducation.Isitgoodandsufficient，orisitinsufficientandbad？Well，hereIventuretosaythatthereareliteraryeducationsandliteraryeducations.IfIamtounderstandbythattermtheeducationthatwascurrentinthegreatmajorityofmiddle—classschools，andupperschoolstoo，inthiscountrywhenIwasaboy，andwhichconsistedabsolutelyandalmostentirelyinkeepingboysforeightortenyearsatlearningtherulesofLatinandGreekgrammar，construingcertainLatinandGreekauthors，andpossiblymakingverseswhich，hadtheybeenEnglishverses，wouldhavebeencondemnedasabominabledoggerel，——ifthatiswhatyoumeanbyliberaleducation，thenI
sayitisscandalouslyinsufficientandalmostworthless.Myreasonforsayingsoisnotfromthepointofviewofscienceatall，butfromthepointofviewofliterature.Isaythethingprofessestobeliteraryeducationthatisnotaliteraryeducationatall.Itwasnotliteratureatallthatwastaught，butscienceinaverybadform.Itisquiteobviousthatgrammarisscienceandnotliterature.Theanalysisofatextbythehelpoftherulesofgrammarisjustasmuchascientificoperationastheanalysisofachemicalcompoundbythehelpoftherulesofchemicalanalysis.Thereisnothingthatappealstotheaestheticfacultyinthatoperation;andIaskmultitudesofmenofmyownage，whowentthroughthisprocess，whethertheyeverhadaconceptionofartorliteratureuntiltheyobtaineditforthemselvesafterleavingschool？Thenyoumaysay，\"Ifthatisso，iftheeducationwasscientific，whycannotyoubesatisfiedwithit？\"Isay，becausealthoughitisascientifictraining，itisofthemostinadequateandinappropriatekind.Ifthereisanygoodatallinscientificeducationitisthatmenshouldbetrained，asIsaidbefore，toknowthingsforthemselvesatfirsthand，andthattheyshouldunderstandeverystepofthereasonofthatwhichtheydo.
Idesiretospeakwiththeutmostrespectofthatscience——
philology——ofwhichgrammarisapartandparcel;yeteverybodyknowsthatgrammar，asitisusuallylearnedatschool，affordsnoscientifictraining.Itistaughtjustasyouwouldteachtherulesofchessordraughts.Ontheotherhand，ifIamtounderstandbyaliteraryeducationthestudyoftheliteraturesofeitherancientormodernnations——butespeciallythoseofantiquity，andespeciallythatofancientGreece;ifthisliteratureisstudied，notmerelyfromthepointofviewofphilologicalscience，anditspracticalapplicationtotheinterpretationoftexts，butasanexemplificationofandcommentaryupontheprinciplesofart;ifyoulookupontheliteratureofapeopleasachapterinthedevelopmentofthehumanmind，ifyouworkoutthisinabroadspirit，andwithsuchcollateralreferencestomoralsandpolitics，andphysicalgeography，andthelikeasareneedfultomakeyoucomprehendwhatthemeaningofancientliteratureandcivilisationis，——then，assuredly，itaffordsasplendidandnobleeducation.ButIstillthinkitissusceptibleofimprovement，andthatnomanwillevercomprehendtherealsecretofthedifferencebetweentheancientworldandourpresenttime，unlesshehaslearnedtoseethedifferencewhichthelatedevelopmentofphysicalsciencehasmadebetweenthethoughtofthisdayandthethoughtofthat，andhewillneverseethatdifference，unlesshehassomepracticalinsightintosomebranchesofphysicalscience;andyoumustrememberthataliteraryeducationsuchasthatwhichIhavejustreferredto，isoutofthereachofthosewhoseschoollifeiscutshortatsixteenorseventeen.
But，youwillsay，allthisisfault—finding;letushearwhatyouhaveinthewayofpositivesuggestion.ThenIamboundtotellyouthat，ifIcouldmakeacleansweepofeverything——IamverygladIcannotbecauseImight，andprobablyshould，makemistakes，——
butifIcouldmakeacleansweepofeverythingandstartafresh，Ishould，inthefirstplace，securethattrainingoftheyounginreadingandwriting，andinthehabitofattentionandobservation，bothtothatwhichistoldthem，andthatwhichtheysee，whicheverybodyagreesto.Butinadditiontothat，Ishouldmakeitabsolutelynecessaryforeverybody，foralongerorshorterperiod，tolearntodraw.Now，youmaysay，therearesomepeoplewhocannotdraw，howevermuchtheymaybetaught.Idenythatintoto，becauseIneveryetmetwithanybodywhocouldnotlearntowrite.
