第25章

类别:其他 作者:Henry Sidgwick字数:5915更新时间:18/12/26 16:30:38
Inthefirstplace,CommonSensegivesusonly,atthebest,anestimatetrueforanaverageortypicalhumanbeing:and,aswehavealreadyseen,itisprobablethatanyparticularindividualwillbemoreorlessdivergentfromthistype。Inanycase,therefore,eachpersonwillhavetocorrecttheestimateofcommonopinionbytheresultsofhisownexperienceinordertoobtainfromittrustworthyguidanceforhisownconduct:andthisprocessofcorrection,itwouldseem,mustbeinvolvedinallthedifficultiesfromwhichwearetryingtoescape。 But,secondly,theexperienceofthemassofmankindisconfinedwithinlimitstoonarrowforitsresultstobeofmuchavailinthepresentinquiry。 Themajorityofhumanbeingsspendmostoftheirtimeinlabouringtoavertstarvationandseverebodilydiscomfort:andthebriefleisurethatremainstothem,aftersupplyingthebodilyneedsoffood,sleep,etc。,isspentinwaysdeterminedratherbyimpulse,routine,andhabit,thanbyadeliberateestimateofprobablepleasure。Itwouldseem,then,thatthecommonsensetowhichwehaveheretorefercanonlybethatofaminorityofcomparativelyrichandleisuredpersons。 Butagain,wecannottellthatthemassofmankind,oranysectionofthemass,isnotgenerallyandnormallyundertheinfluenceofsonicofthecausesofmal-observationpreviouslynoticed。Weavoidthe``idolsofthecave’’bytrustingCommonSense,butwhatistoguardusagainstthe``idolsofthetribe’’?Moreover,thecommonestimateofdifferentsourcesofhappinessseemstoinvolvealltheconfusionofideasandpointsofview,whichindefiningtheempiricalmethodofHedonismwehavetakensomepainstoeliminate。Inthefirstplaceitdoesnotdistinguishbetweenobjectsofnaturaldesireandsourcesofexperiencedpleasure。 Nowwehaveseen(Booki。chap。iv。)thatthesetwoarenotexactlycoincident——indeedwefindnumerousexamplesofmenwhocontinuenotonlytofeelbuttoindulgedesires,thegratificationofwhichtheyknowbyampleexperiencetobeattendedwithmorepainthanpleasure。Andthereforethecurrentestimateofthedesirabilityofobjectsofpursuitcannotbetakentoexpresssimplymen’sexperienceofpleasureandpain:formenareapttothinkdesirablewhattheystronglydesire,whetherornottheyhavefounditconducivetohappinessonthewhole:andsothecommonopinionwilltendtorepresentacompromisebetweentheaverageforceofdesiresandtheaverageexperienceoftheconsequencesofgratifyingthem。 Wemustallowagainfortheinterminglingofmoralwithpurelyhedonisticpreferencesintheestimateofcommonsense。Forevenwhenmendefinitelyexpectgreaterhappinessfromthecourseofconductwhichtheychoosethanfromanyother,itisoftenbecausetheythinkittheright,ormoreexcellent,ormorenoblecourse;making,moreorlessunconsciously,theassumption(whichweshallpresentlyhavetoconsider) thatthemorallybestactionwillprovetobealsothemostconducivetotheagent’shappiness。Andasimilarassumptionseemstobemade——withoutadequatewarrant——asregardsmerelyæ;stheticpreferences。 Again,theintroductionofthemoralandæ;stheticpointsofviewsuggeststhefollowingdoubt:——Arewetobeguidedbythepreferenceswhichmenavow,orbythosewhichtheiractionswouldleadustoinfer?Ontheonehand,wecannotdoubtthatmenoften,fromweaknessofcharacter,failtoseekwhattheysincerelybelievewillgivethemmostpleasureinthelong-run:ontheotherhand,asagenuinepreferenceforvirtuousorrefinedpleasureisamarkofgenuinevirtueorrefinedtaste,menwhodonotreallyfeelsuchpreferenceareunconsciouslyorconsciouslyinfluencedbyadesiretogaincreditforit,andtheirexpressestimateofpleasuresisthusmodifiedandcoloured。 But,evenifwehadnodoubtongeneralgroundsthatCommonSensewouldproveourbestguideinthepursuitofhappiness,weshouldstillbeperplexedbyfindingitsutterancesonthistopicverydeficientinclearnessandconsistency。I donotmerelymeanthattheyaredifferentindifferentagesandcountries——thatwemightexplainasduetovariationsinthegeneralconditionsofhumanlife——:butthatseriousconflictsandambiguitiesarefoundifweconsideronlythecurrentcommonsenseofourownageandcountry。Wecanmakealistofsourcesofhappinessapparentlyrecommendedbyanoverwhelmingconsensusofcurrentopinion:ashealth,wealth,friendshipandfamilyaffections,fameandsocialposition,power,interestingandcongenialoccupationandamusement,——includingthegratification,insomeform,oftheloveofknowledge,andofthoserefined,partlysensual,partlyemotional,susceptibilitieswhichwecallæ;sthetic。[1]Butifweinquireintotherelativevalueoftheseobjectsofcommonpursuit,weseemtogetnoclearanswerfromCommonSense——unless,perhaps,itwouldbegenerallyagreedthathealthoughttobeparamounttoallothersecondaryends:thoughevenonthispointwecouldnotinfergeneralagreementfromobservationoftheactualconductofmankind。Nay,evenasregardsthepositiveestimateofthesesourcesofhappiness,wefindoncloserexaminationthatthesupposedconsensusismuchlessclearthanitseemedatfirst。Notonlyaretherenumerousandimportantbodiesofdissidentsfromthecurrentopinions:buttheverysamemajority,thesameCommonSenseofMankindthatmaintainstheseopinions,isfoundinasingularandunexpectedmannertowelcomeandapprovetheparadoxesofthesedissidents。Menshowareallystartlingreadinesstoadmitthattheestimatesofhappinesswhichguidethemintheirordinaryhabitsandpursuitsareerroneousandillusory; andthatfromtimetotimetheveilis,asitwere,lifted,andtheerrorandillusionmademanifest。 For,first,menseemtoattachgreatvaluetotheamplegratificationofbodilyappetitesandneeds:thewealthierpartofmankindspendaconsiderableamountofmoneyandforethoughtuponthemeansofsatisfyingtheseinaluxuriousmanner:andthoughtheydonotoftendeliberatelysacrificehealthtothisgratification——commonsensecondemnsthatasirrational——stillonemaysaythattheyarehabituallycourageousinpressingforwardtotheveryvergeofthisimprudence。 Andyetthesamepeoplearefondofsayingthat``hungeristhebestsauce’’,andthat``temperanceandlabourwillmakeplainfoodmoredelightfulthanthemostexquisiteproductsoftheculinaryart’’。Andtheyoftenarguewithperfectsinceritythattherichhavereallynoadvantage,orscarcelyanyadvantage,overthecomparativelypoor,inrespectofthesepleasures;forhabitsoonrendersthemoreluxuriousprovisionforthesatisfactionoftheiracquiredneedsnomorepleasanttotherichthantheappeasingofhismoreprimitiveappetitesistothepoorman。Andthesameargumentisoftenextendedtoallthematerialcomfortsthatwealthcanpurchase。Itisoftencontendedthathabitatoncerendersusindifferenttothesewhiletheyareenjoyed,andyetunabletodispensewiththemwithoutannoyance:sothatthepleasuresofthemerelyanimallifearenogreatertotherichthantothepoor,butonlymoreinsecure。Andfromthisthereisbutashortsteptotheconclusion,thatwealth,inthepursuitofwhichmostmenagreeinconcentratingtheirefforts,andontheattainmentofwhichallcongratulateeachother,——wealth,forwhichsomanyrisktheirhealth,shortentheirlives,reducetheirenjoymentsofdomesticlife,andsacrificethemorerefinedpleasuresofcuriosityandart,——isreallyaverydoubtfulgain,inthemajorityofcases;becausethecaresandanxietieswhichitentailsbalance,formostmen,theslightadvantageoftheluxurieswhichitpurchases。 Andsimilarly,althoughsocialrankandstatusis,inEngland,anobjectofpassionatepursuit,yetitiscontinuallysaid,withgeneralapproval,thatitisofnointrinsicvalueasameansofhappiness;thatthoughtheprocessofascendingfromalowergradetoahigherisperhapsgenerallyagreeable,andtheprocessofdescendingfromahighertoalowercertainlypainful,yetpermanentexistenceontheloftierlevelisnomorepleasantthanonthehumbler;thathappinessistobefoundaseasilyinacottageasinapalace(ifnot,indeed,moreeasilyinthecottage):andsoforth。 StillmoretritearethecommonplacesastotheemptinessandvanityofthesatisfactiontobederivedfromFameandReputation。Thecaseofposthumousfame,indeed,isastrikinginstanceofthegeneralpropositionbeforelaiddown,thatthecommonlyacceptedendsofactionaredeterminedpartlybytheaverageforceofdesiresthatarenotdirectedtowardspleasure,norconformedtoexperiencesofpleasure。 Forposthumousfameseemstorankprettyhighamongtheobjectsthatcommonopinionregardsasgoodordesirablefortheindividual:andthepursuitofitisnotordinarilystigmatisedascontrarytoprudence,evenifitleadsamantosacrificeotherimportantsourcesofhappinesstoaresultofwhichbeneverexpectstobeactuallyconscious。Yettheslightestreflectionshowssuchapursuittobeprimafacieirrational,fromanegoisticpointofview;andeverymoraliserhasfoundthisanobviousandpopulartopic。Theactualconsciousnessofpresentfameisnodoubtverydelightfultomostpersons:stillthemoraliserdoesnotfinditdifficulttomaintainthateventhisisattendedwithsuchcounterbalancingdisadvantagesasrenderitshedonisticvalueverydoubtful。 Again,thecurrentestimateofthedesirabilityofPoweristolerablyhigh,andperhapsthemorecloselyandanalyticallyweexaminetheactualmotivesofmen,themorewidespreadandpredominantitspursuitwillappear:formanymenseemtoseekwealth,knowledge,evenreputation,asameanstotheattainment,ofpower,ratherthanfortheirownsakesorwithaviewtootherpleasures。Andyetmenassentwillinglywhentheyaretoldthatthepursuitofpower,asoffame,ispromptedbyavainambition,neversatisfied,butonlyrenderedmoreuneasyby,suchsuccessasispossibleforit:thattheanxietieswhichattendnotonlythepursuitbutthepossessionofpower,andthejealousiesanddangersinseparablefromthelatter,faroutweighitspleasures。 Societyofsomesortnoonecandenytobenecessarytohumanhappiness:butstillthekindanddegreeofsocialintercoursewhichisactuallysoughtbythemorewealthyandleisuredportionofthecommunity,withnolittleexpenditureoftime,trouble,andmeans,isoftendeclaredtoyieldamostthinandmeagreresultofpleasure。 Wefind,nodoubt,greatagreementamongmodernmoralisersastotheimportanceoftheexerciseofthedomesticaffectionsasameansofhappiness:andthiscertainlyseemstohaveaprominentplaceintheplanoflifeofthemajorityofmankind。Andyetitmayfairlybedoubtedwhethermeningeneraldovaluedomesticlifeveryhighly,apartfromthegratificationofsexualpassion。Certainlywheneveranypartofcivilisedsocietyisinsuchastatethatmencanfreelyindulgethispassionandatthesametimeavoidtheburdenofafamily,withoutanyseriousfearofsocialdisapprobation,celibacytendstobecomecommon:ithasevenbecomesocommonastoexcitethegraveanxietyoflegislators。Andthoughsuchconducthasalwaysbeendisapprovedbycommonsense,itseemstoberathercondemnedasanti-socialthanasimprudent。 Thusourexaminationshowsgreatinstabilityanduncertaintyinthemostdecisivejudgmentsofcommonsense——since,asIhavesaid,bodilycomfortandluxury,wealth,fame,power,societyaretheobjectswhichcommonopinionseemsmostclearlyandconfidentlytorecommendassourcesofpleasure。ForthoughthepleasuresderivedfromArtandthecontemplationofthebeautifulinNature,andthoseofcuriosityandtheexerciseoftheintellectgenerally,arehighlypraised,itisdifficulttoformulatea``commonopinion’’inrespectofthem,sincethehighestimatesoftensetuponthemseemtoexpresstherealexperienceofonlysmallminorities。Andthoughthesehavepersuadedthemassofmankind,orthatportionofitwhichispossessedofleisure,toletCultureberegardedasanimportantsourceofhappiness;theycanscarcelybesaidtohaveproducedanygenerallyacceptedopinionastoitsimportanceincomparisonwiththeothersourcesbeforementioned,thepleasuresofwhicharemoregenuinelyappreciatedbythemajority;stilllessastotherelativevalueofdifferentelementsofthisculture。 Butevensupposingtheconsensus,inrespectofsourcesofhappiness,werefarmorecompleteandclearthanimpartialreflectionseemstoshow,itsvaluewouldstillbeconsiderablyimpairedbythedissentofimportantminorities,whichwehavenotyetnoticed。 Forexample,manyreligiouspersonsregardallmundanepleasuresasmeanandtrifling;sofullofvanityandemptinessthattheeagerpursuitofthemisonlypossiblethroughever-renewedillusion,leadingtoever-repeateddisappointment。Andthisviewissharedbynotafewreflectivepersonswhohavenoreligiousbias:asisevidentfromthenumerousadherentsthatPessimismhaswoninrecenttimes。Indeedasomewhatsimilarjudgment,onthevalueoftheordinaryobjectsofhumanpursuit,hasbeenpassedbymanyphilosopherswhohavenotbeenpessimists:andwhenweconsiderthatitisthephilosopher’sespecialbusinesstoreflectwithcareandprecisiononthefactsofconsciousness,weshallhesitate,inanydisputebetweenphilosophersandthemassofmankind,toletourconclusionbedeterminedbymerelycountingheads。Ontheotherhand,ashasbeenalreadyobserved,thephilosopher’ssusceptibilitiesandcapacitiesoffeelingdonotfairlyrepresentthoseofhumanityingeneral:andhenceifhe~