第19章

’Part’means(1)(a)thatintowhichaquantumcaninanywaybe divided；forthatwhichistakenfromaquantumquaquantumis alwayscalledapartofit，e。g。twoiscalledinasenseapartof three。Itmeans(b)，ofthepartsinthefirstsense，onlythosewhich measurethewhole；thisiswhytwo，thoughinonesenseitis，in anotherisnot，calledapartofthree-(2)Theelementsintowhich akindmightbedividedapartfromthequantityarealsocalled partsofit；forwhichreasonwesaythespeciesarepartsofthe genus-(3)Theelementsintowhichawholeisdivided，orofwhich itconsists-the’whole’meaningeithertheformorthatwhichhas theform；e。g。ofthebronzesphereorofthebronzecubeboththe bronze-i。e。thematterinwhichtheformis-andthecharacteristic angleareparts-(4)Theelementsinthedefinitionwhichexplainsa thingarealsopartsofthewhole；thisiswhythegenusiscalleda partofthespecies，thoughinanothersensethespeciesispartof thegenus。 ’Awhole’means(1)thatfromwhichisabsentnoneofthepartsof whichitissaidtobenaturallyawhole，and(2)thatwhichso containsthethingsitcontainsthattheyformaunity；andthisin twosenses-eitherasbeingeachseverallyonesinglething，oras makinguptheunitybetweenthem。For(a)thatwhichistrueofa wholeclassandissaidtoholdgoodasawhole(whichimpliesthatit isakindwhole)istrueofawholeinthesensethatitcontainsmany thingsbybeingpredicatedofeach，andbyallofthem，e。g。man， horse，god，beingseverallyonesinglething，becauseallareliving things。But(b)thecontinuousandlimitedisawhole，whenitisa unityconsistingofseveralparts，especiallyiftheyarepresentonly potentially，but，failingthis，eveniftheyarepresentactually。 Ofthesethingsthemselves，thosewhicharesobynaturearewholesin ahigherdegreethanthosewhicharesobyart，aswesaidinthecase ofunityalso，wholenessbeinginfactasortofoneness。 Again(3)ofquantathathaveabeginningandamiddleandanend， thosetowhichthepositiondoesnotmakeadifferencearecalled totals，andthosetowhichitdoes，wholes。Thosewhichadmitof bothdescriptionsarebothwholesandtotals。Thesearethethings whosenatureremainsthesameaftertransposition，butwhoseformdoes not，e。g。waxoracoat；theyarecalledbothwholesandtotals；for theyhavebothcharacteristics。Waterandallliquidsandnumberare calledtotals，but’thewholenumber’or’thewholewater’onedoes notspeakof，exceptbyanextensionofmeaning。Tothings，towhich quaonetheterm’total’isapplied，theterm’all’isappliedwhen theyaretreatedasseparate；’thistotalnumber，’’alltheseunits。’ Itisnotanychancequantitativethingthatcanbesaidtobe ’mutilated’；itmustbeawholeaswellasdivisible。Fornotonly istwonot’mutilated’ifoneofthetwoonesistakenaway(forthe partremovedbymutilationisneverequaltotheremainder)，butin generalnonumberisthusmutilated；foritisalsonecessarythatthe essenceremain；ifacupismutilated，itmuststillbeacup；butthe numberisnolongerthesame。Further，evenifthingsconsistof unlikeparts，noteventhesethingscanallbesaidtobemutilated， forinasenseanumberhasunlikeparts(e。g。twoandthree)as wellaslike；butingeneralofthethingstowhichtheirposition makesnodifference，e。g。waterorfire，nonecanbemutilated；to bemutilated，thingsmustbesuchasinvirtueoftheiressencehavea certainposition。Again，theymustbecontinuous；foramusical scaleconsistsofunlikepartsandhasposition，butcannotbecome mutilated。Besides，noteventhethingsthatarewholesare mutilatedbytheprivationofanypart。Forthepartsremovedmust beneitherthosewhichdeterminetheessencenoranychanceparts， irrespectiveoftheirposition；e。g。acupisnotmutilatedifitis boredthrough，butonlyifthehandleoraprojectingpartisremoved， andamanismutilatednotifthefleshorthespleenisremoved， butifanextremityis，andthatnoteveryextremitybutonewhich whencompletelyremovedcannotgrowagain。Thereforebaldnessisnota mutilation。 Theterm’race’or’genus’isused(1)ifgenerationofthings whichhavethesameformiscontinuous，e。g。’whiletheraceofmen lasts’means’whilethegenerationofthemgoeson continuously’-(2)Itisusedwithreferencetothatwhichfirst broughtthingsintoexistence；foritisthusthatsomearecalled HellenesbyraceandothersIonians，becausetheformerproceedfrom HellenandthelatterfromIonastheirfirstbegetter。Andtheword isusedinreferencetothebegettermorethantothematter，though peoplealsogetarace-namefromthefemale，e。g。’thedescendants ofPyrrha’-(3)Thereisgenusinthesenseinwhich’plane’isthe genusofplanefiguresandsolid’ofsolids；foreachofthefigures isintheonecaseaplaneofsuchandsuchakind，andintheothera solidofsuchandsuchakind；andthisiswhatunderliesthe differentiae。Again(4)indefinitionsthefirstconstituent element，whichisincludedinthe’what’，isthegenus，whose differentiaethequalitiesaresaidtobe’Genus’thenisusedin alltheseways，(1)inreferencetocontinuousgenerationofthe samekind，(2)inreferencetothefirstmoverwhichisofthesame kindasthethingsitmoves，(3)asmatter；forthattowhichthe differentiaorqualitybelongsisthesubstratum，whichwecall matter。 Thosethingsaresaidtobe’otheringenus’whoseproximate substratumisdifferent，andwhicharenotanalysedtheoneintothe othernorbothintothesamething(e。g。formandmatteraredifferent ingenus)；andthingswhichbelongtodifferentcategoriesofbeing (forsomeofthethingsthataresaidto’be’signifyessence， othersaquality，otherstheothercategorieswehavebefore distinguished)；thesealsoarenotanalysedeitherintooneanotheror intosomeonething。 ’Thefalse’means(1)thatwhichisfalseasathing，andthat(a) becauseitisnotputtogetherorcannotbeputtogether，e。g。’that thediagonalofasquareiscommensuratewiththeside’or’thatyou aresitting’；foroneoftheseisfalsealways，andtheother sometimes；itisinthesetwosensesthattheyarenon-existent。(b) Therearethingswhichexist，butwhosenatureitistoappear eithernottobesuchastheyareortobethingsthatdonotexist， e。g。asketchoradream；forthesearesomething，butarenotthe thingstheappearanceofwhichtheyproduceinus。Wecallthings falseinthisway，then，-eitherbecausetheythemselvesdonot exist，orbecausetheappearancewhichresultsfromthemisthatof somethingthatdoesnotexist。 (2)Afalseaccountistheaccountofnon-existentobjects，in sofarasitisfalse。Henceeveryaccountisfalsewhenappliedto somethingotherthanthatofwhichitistrue；e。g。theaccountofa circleisfalsewhenappliedtoatriangle。Inasensethereisone accountofeachthing，i。e。theaccountofitsessence，butinasense therearemany，sincethethingitselfandthethingitselfwithan attributeareinasensethesame，e。g。Socratesandmusical Socrates(afalseaccountisnottheaccountofanything，exceptin aqualifiedsense)。HenceAntistheneswastoosimple-mindedwhenhe claimedthatnothingcouldbedescribedexceptbytheaccountproper toit，-onepredicatetoonesubject；fromwhichtheconclusionusedto bedrawnthattherecouldbenocontradiction，andalmostthatthere couldbenoerror。Butitispossibletodescribeeachthingnot onlybytheaccountofitself，butalsobythatofsomethingelse。 Thismaybedonealtogetherfalselyindeed，butthereisalsoawayin whichitmaybedonetruly；e。g。eightmaybedescribedasadouble numberbytheuseofthedefinitionoftwo。 Thesethings，then，arecalledfalseinthesesenses，but(3)a falsemanisonewhoisreadyatandfondofsuchaccounts，notfor anyotherreasonbutfortheirownsake，andonewhoisgoodat impressingsuchaccountsonotherpeople，justaswesaythingsare whichproduceafalseappearance。ThisiswhytheproofintheHippias thatthesamemanisfalseandtrueismisleading。Foritassumesthat heisfalsewhocandeceive(i。e。themanwhoknowsandiswise)； andfurtherthathewhoiswillinglybadisbetter。Thisisafalse resultofinduction-foramanwholimpswillinglyisbetterthanone whodoessounwillingly-by’limping’Platomeans’mimickingalimp’， forifthemanwerelamewillingly，hewouldpresumablybeworsein thiscaseasinthecorrespondingcaseofmoralcharacter。 ’Accident’means(1)thatwhichattachestosomethingandcanbe trulyasserted，butneitherofnecessitynorusually，e。g。ifsomeone indiggingaholeforaplanthasfoundtreasure。This-thefinding oftreasure-isforthemanwhodugtheholeanaccident；forneither doestheonecomeofnecessityfromtheotheroraftertheother，nor， ifamanplants，doesheusuallyfindtreasure。Andamusicalman mightbepale；butsincethisdoesnothappenofnecessitynor usually，wecallitanaccident。Thereforesincethereare attributesandtheyattachtosubjects，andsomeofthemattachto theseonlyinaparticularplaceandataparticulartime，whatever attachestoasubject，butnotbecauseitwasthissubject，orthe timethistime，ortheplacethisplace，willbeanaccident。 Therefore，too，thereisnodefinitecauseforanaccident，buta chancecause，i。e。anindefiniteone。GoingtoAeginawasan accidentforaman，ifhewentnotinordertogetthere，but becausehewascarriedoutofhiswaybyastormorcapturedby pirates。Theaccidenthashappenedorexists，-notinvirtueofthe subject’snature，however，butofsomethingelse；forthestormwas thecauseofhiscomingtoaplaceforwhichhewasnotsailing，and thiswasAegina。 ’Accident’hasalso(2)anothermeaning，i。e。allthatattachesto eachthinginvirtueofitselfbutisnotinitsessence，ashaving itsanglesequaltotworightanglesattachestothetriangle。And accidentsofthissortmaybeeternal，butnoaccidentoftheother sortis。Thisisexplainedelsewhere。