possible，butthethoughtisnotrelativeto’thatofwhichitis
thethought’；forweshouldthenhavesaidthesamethingtwice。
Similarlysightisthesightofsomething，not’ofthatofwhichitis
thesight’(thoughofcourseitistruetosaythis)；infactitis
relativetocolourortosomethingelseofthesort。Butaccording
totheotherwayofspeakingthesamethingwouldbesaid
twice，-’thesightisofthatofwhichitis。’
Thingsthatarebytheirownnaturecalledrelativearecalled
sosometimesinthesesenses，sometimesiftheclassesthatinclude
themareofthissort；e。g。medicineisarelativetermbecauseits
genus，science，isthoughttobearelativeterm。Further，thereare
thepropertiesinvirtueofwhichthethingsthathavethemarecalled
relative，e。g。equalityisrelativebecausetheequalis，andlikeness
becausethelikeis。Otherthingsarerelativebyaccident；e。g。aman
isrelativebecausehehappenstobedoubleofsomethinganddoubleis
arelativeterm；orthewhiteisrelative，ifthesamethinghappens
tobedoubleandwhite。
Whatiscalled’complete’is(1)thatoutsidewhichitisnot
possibletofindany，evenone，ofitsparts；e。g。thecompletetime
ofeachthingisthatoutsidewhichitisnotpossibletofindany
timewhichisapartpropertoit-(2)Thatwhichinrespectof
excellenceandgoodnesscannotbeexcelledinitskind；e。g。wehavea
completedoctororacompleteflute-player，whentheylacknothing
inrespectoftheformoftheirproperexcellence。Andthus，
transferringthewordtobadthings，wespeakofacomplete
scandal-mongerandacompletethief；indeedweevencallthemgood，
i。e。agoodthiefandagoodscandal-monger。Andexcellenceisa
completion；foreachthingiscompleteandeverysubstanceis
complete，wheninrespectoftheformofitsproperexcellenceit
lacksnopartofitsnaturalmagnitude-(3)Thethingswhichhave
attainedtheirend，thisbeinggood，arecalledcomplete；forthings
arecompleteinvirtueofhavingattainedtheirend。Therefore，
sincetheendissomethingultimate，wetransferthewordtobad
thingsandsayathinghasbeencompletelyspoilt，andcompletely
destroyed，whenitinnowisefallsshortofdestructionand
badness，butisatitslastpoint。Thisiswhydeath，too，isbya
figureofspeechcalledtheend，becausebotharelastthings。Butthe
ultimatepurposeisalsoanend-Things，then，thatarecalled
completeinvirtueoftheirownnaturearesocalledinallthese
senses，somebecauseinrespectofgoodnesstheylacknothingand
cannotbeexcelledandnopartpropertothemcanbefoundoutside
them，othersingeneralbecausetheycannotbeexceededintheir
severalclassesandnopartpropertothemisoutsidethem；theothers
presupposethesefirsttwokinds，andarecalledcompletebecausethey
eithermakeorhavesomethingofthesortorareadaptedtoitorin
somewayorotherinvolveareferencetothethingsthatarecalled
completeintheprimarysense。
’Limit’means(1)thelastpointofeachthing，i。e。thefirst
pointbeyondwhichitisnotpossibletofindanypart，andthe
firstpointwithinwhicheverypartis；(2)theform，whateverit
maybe，ofaspatialmagnitudeorofathingthathasmagnitude；(3)
theendofeachthing(andofthisnatureisthattowardswhichthe
movementandtheactionare，notthatfromwhichtheyare-though
sometimesitisboth，thatfromwhichandthattowhichthemovement
is，i。e。thefinalcause)；(4)thesubstanceofeachthing，andthe
essenceofeach；forthisisthelimitofknowledge；andifof
knowledge，oftheobjectalso。Evidently，therefore，’limit’hasas
manysensesas’beginning’，andyetmore；forthebeginningisa
limit，butnoteverylimitisabeginning。
’Thatinvirtueofwhich’hasseveralmeanings:-(1)theformor
substanceofeachthing，e。g。thatinvirtueofwhichamanisgoodis
thegooditself，(2)theproximatesubjectinwhichitisthenature
ofanattributetobefound，e。g。colourinasurface。’Thatinvirtue
ofwhich’，then，intheprimarysenseistheform，andina
secondarysensethematterofeachthingandtheproximate
substratumofeach-Ingeneral’thatinvirtueofwhich’willfoundin
thesamenumberofsensesas’cause’；forwesayindifferently(3)
invirtueofwhathashecome？’or’forwhatendhashecome？’；and
(4)invirtueofwhathasheinferredwrongly，orinferred？’or
’whatisthecauseoftheinference，orofthewrong
inference？’-Further(5)Kath’disusedinreferencetoposition，e。g。
’atwhichhestands’or’alongwhichhewalks；forallsuchphrases
indicateplaceandposition。
Therefore’invirtueofitself’mustlikewisehaveseveral
meanings。Thefollowingbelongtoathinginvirtueofitself:-(1)the
essenceofeachthing，e。g。CalliasisinvirtueofhimselfCallias
andwhatitwastobeCallias；-(2)whateverispresentinthe
’what’，e。g。Calliasisinvirtueofhimselfananimal。For’animal’
ispresentinhisdefinition；Calliasisaparticularanimal-(3)
Whateverattributeathingreceivesinitselfdirectlyorinoneof
itsparts；e。g。asurfaceiswhiteinvirtueofitself，andamanis
aliveinvirtueofhimself；forthesoul，inwhichlifedirectly
resides，isapartoftheman-(4)Thatwhichhasnocauseother
thanitself；manhasmorethanonecause——animal，two-footed——but
yetmanismaninvirtueofhimself-(5)Whateverattributesbelongto
athingalone，andinsofarastheybelongtoitmerelybyvirtue
ofitselfconsideredapartbyitself。
’Disposition’meansthearrangementofthatwhichhasparts，in
respecteitherofplaceorofpotencyorofkind；fortheremustbe
acertainposition，aseventheword’disposition’shows。
’Having’means(1)akindofactivityofthehaverandofwhat
hehas-somethinglikeanactionormovement。Forwhenonething
makesandoneismade，betweenthemthereisamaking；sotoo
betweenhimwhohasagarmentandthegarmentwhichhehasthereis
ahaving。Thissortofhaving，then，evidentlywecannothave；forthe
processwillgoontoinfinity，ifitistobepossibletohavethe
havingofwhatwehave-(2)’Having’or’habit’meansadisposition
accordingtowhichthatwhichisdisposediseitherwellorill
disposed，andeitherinitselforwithreferencetosomethingelse；
e。g。healthisa’habit’；foritissuchadisposition-(3)Wespeak
ofa’habit’ifthereisaportionofsuchadisposition；andso
eventheexcellenceofthepartsisa’habit’ofthewholething。
’Affection’means(1)aqualityinrespectofwhichathingcanbe
altered，e。g。whiteandblack，sweetandbitter，heavinessand
lightness，andallothersofthekind-(2)Theactualizationof
these-thealreadyaccomplishedalterations-(3)Especially，
injuriousalterationsandmovements，and，aboveallpainful
injuries-(4)Misfortunesandpainfulexperienceswhenonalarge
scalearecalledaffections。
Wespeakof’privation’(1)ifsomethinghasnotoneofthe
attributeswhichathingmightnaturallyhave，evenifthisthing
itselfwouldnotnaturallyhaveit；e。g。aplantissaidtobe
’deprived’ofeyes-(2)If，thougheitherthethingitselforits
genuswouldnaturallyhaveanattribute，ithasitnot；e。g。ablind
manandamoleareindifferentsenses’deprived’ofsight；thelatter
incontrastwithitsgenus，theformerincontrastwithhisownnormal
nature-(3)If，thoughitwouldnaturallyhavetheattribute，andwhen
itwouldnaturallyhaveit，ithasitnot；forblindnessisa
privation，butoneisnot’blind’atanyandeveryage，butonlyif
onehasnotsightattheageatwhichonewouldnaturallyhaveit。
Similarlyathingiscalledblindifithasnotsightinthemediumin
which，andinrespectoftheorganinrespectofwhich，andwith
referencetotheobjectwithreferencetowhich，andinthe
circumstancesinwhich，itwouldnaturallyhaveit-(4)Theviolent
takingawayofanythingiscalledprivation。
Indeedtherearejustasmanykindsofprivationsasthereare
ofwordswithnegativeprefixes；forathingiscalledunequalbecause
ithasnotequalitythoughitwouldnaturallyhaveit，andinvisible
eitherbecauseithasnocolouratallorbecauseithasapoor
colour，andapodouseitherbecauseithasnofeetatallorbecauseit
hasimperfectfeet。Again，aprivativetermmaybeusedbecausethe
thinghaslittleoftheattribute(andthismeanshavingitinasense
imperfectly)，e。g。’kernel-less’；orbecauseithasitnoteasilyor
notwell(e。g。wecallathinguncuttablenotonlyifitcannotbecut
butalsoifitcannotbecuteasilyorwell)；orbecauseithasnot
theattributeatall；foritisnottheone-eyedmanbuthewhois
sightlessinbotheyesthatiscalledblind。Thisiswhynoteveryman
is’good’or’bad’，’just’or’unjust’，butthereisalsoan
intermediatestate。
To’have’or’hold’meansmanythings:-(1)totreatathing
accordingtoone’sownnatureoraccordingtoone’sownimpulse；so
thatfeverissaidtohaveaman，andtyrantstohavetheircities，
andpeopletohavetheclothestheywear-(2)Thatinwhichathingis
presentasinsomethingreceptiveofitissaidtohavethething；
e。g。thebronzehastheformofthestatue，andthebodyhasthe
disease-(3)Asthatwhichcontainsholdsthethingscontained；for
athingissaidtobeheldbythatinwhichitisasinacontainer；
e。g。wesaythatthevesselholdstheliquidandthecityholdsmen
andtheshipsailors；andsotoothatthewholeholdstheparts-(4)
Thatwhichhindersathingfrommovingoractingaccordingtoits
ownimpulseissaidtoholdit，aspillarsholdtheincumbentweights，
andasthepoetsmakeAtlasholdtheheavens，implyingthat
otherwisetheywouldcollapseontheearth，assomeofthenatural
philosophersalsosay。Inthiswayalsothatwhichholdsthings
togetherissaidtoholdthethingsitholdstogether，sincethey
wouldotherwiseseparate，eachaccordingtoitsownimpulse。
’Beinginsomething’hassimilarandcorrespondingmeaningsto
’holding’or’having’。
’Tocomefromsomething’means(1)tocomefromsomethingas
frommatter，andthisintwosenses，eitherinrespectofthe
highestgenusorinrespectofthelowestspecies；e。g。inasenseall
thingsthatcanbemeltedcomefromwater，butinasensethestatue
comesfrombronze-(2)Asfromthefirstmovingprinciple；e。g。
’whatdidthefightcomefrom？’Fromabusivelanguage，becausethis
wastheoriginofthefight-(3)Fromthecompoundofmatterand
shape，asthepartscomefromthewhole，andtheversefromtheIliad，
andthestonesfromthehouse；(ineverysuchcasethewholeisa
compoundofmatterandshape，)fortheshapeistheend，andonlythat
whichattainsanendiscomplete-(4)Astheformfromitspart，
e。g。manfrom’two-footed’andsyllablefrom’letter’；forthisisa
differentsensefromthatinwhichthestatuecomesfrombronze；for
thecompositesubstancecomesfromthesensiblematter，buttheform
alsocomesfromthematteroftheform-Somethings，then，aresaidto
comefromsomethingelseinthesesenses；but(5)othersareso
describedifoneofthesesensesisapplicabletoapartofthatother
thing；e。g。thechildcomesfromitsfatherandmother，andplants
comefromtheearth，becausetheycomefromapartofthose
things-(6)Itmeanscomingafterathingintime，e。g。nightcomes
fromdayandstormfromfineweather，becausetheonecomesafter
theother。Ofthesethingssomearesodescribedbecausetheyadmitof
changeintooneanother，asinthecasesnowmentioned；somemerely
becausetheyaresuccessiveintime，e。g。thevoyagetookplace’from’
theequinox，becauseittookplaceaftertheequinox，andthefestival
oftheThargeliacomes’from’theDionysia，becauseafterthe
Dionysia。
