SectionIV。
Thesamesubjectcontinued。
Menfrequently，whiletheystudytoimprovetheirfortunes，neglectthemselves；andwhiletheyreasonfortheircountry，forgettheconsiderationsthatmostdeservetheirattention。
Numbers，riches，andtheotherresourcesofwar，arehighlyimportant:butnationsconsistofmen；andanationconsistingofdegenerateandcowardlymen，isweak；anationconsistingofvigorous，public-spirited，andresolutemen，isstrong，Theresourcesofwar，whereotheradvantagesareequal，maydecideacontest；buttheresourcesofwar，inhandsthatcannotemploythem，areofnoavail。
Virtueisanecessaryconstituentofnationalstrength:
capacity，andavigorousunderstanding，arenolessnecessarytosustainthefortuneofstates。Bothareimprovedbydiscipline，andbytheexercisesinwhichmenareengaged。Wedespise，orwepity，thelotofmankind，whiletheylivedunderuncertainestablishments，andwereobligedtosustaininthesameperson，thecharacterofthesenator，thestatesman，andthesoldier。
Polishednationsdiscover，thatanyoneofthesecharactersissufficientinoneperson；andthattheendsofeach，whendisjoined，aremoreeasilyaccomplished。Thefirst，however，werecircumstancesunderwhichnationsadvancedandprospered；thesecondwerethoseinwhichthespiritrelaxed，andthenationwenttodecay。
Wemay，withgoodreason，congratulateourspeciesontheirhavingescapedfromastateofbarbarousdisorderandviolence，intoastateofdomesticpeaceandregularpolicy；whentheyhavesheathedthedagger，anddisarmedtheanimositiesofcivilcontention；whentheweaponswithwhichtheycontendarethereasoningsofthewise，andthetongueoftheeloquent。Butwecannot，mean-time，helptoregret，thattheyshouldeverproceed，insearchofperfection，toplaceeverybranchofadministrationbehindthecounter，andcometoemploy，insteadofthestatesmanandwarrior，themereclerkandaccountant。
Bycarryingthissystemtoitsheight，menareeducated，whocouldcopyforCaesarhismilitaryinstructions，orevenexecuteapartofhisplans；butnonewhocouldactinallthedifferentsCenesforwhichtheleaderhimselfmustbequalified，inthestateandinthefield，intimesoforderoroftumult，intimesofdivisionorofunanimity。nonewhocouldanimatethecouncilwhendeliberatingonordinaryoccasions，orwhenalarmedbyattacksfromabroad。
ThepolicyofChinaisthemostperfectmodelofanarrangement，atwhichtheordinaryrefinementsofgovernmentareaimed；andtheinhabitantsofthisempirepossess，inthehighestdegree，thoseartsonwhichvulgarmindsmakethefelicityandgreatnessofnationstodepend。Thestatehasacquired，inameasureunequalledinthehistoryofmankind，numbersofmen，andtheotherresourcesofwar。Theyhavedonewhatweareveryapttoadmire；theyhavebroughtnationalaffairstothelevelofthemeanestcapacity；theyhavebrokethemintoparts，andthrownthemintoseparatedepartments；theyhaveclothedeveryproceedingwithsplendidceremonies，andmajesticalforms；andwherethereverenceofformscannotrepressdisorder，arigorousandseverepolice，armedwitheveryspeciesofcorporalpunishment，isappliedtothepurpose。Thewhip，andthecudgel，arehelduptoallordersofmen；theyareatonceemployed，andtheyaredreadedbyeverymagistrate。Amandarineiswhipped，forhavingorderedapickpockettoreceivetoofewortoomanyblows。
Everydepartmentofstateismadetheobjectofaseparateprofession，andeverycandidateforofficemusthavepassedthrougharegulareducation；and，asinthegraduationsoftheuniversity，musthaveobtainedbyhisproficiency，orhisstanding，thedegreetowhichheaspires。Thetribunalsofstate，ofwar，andoftherevenue，aswellasofliterature，areconductedbygraduatesintheirdifferentstudies:butwhilelearningisthegreatroadtopreferment，itterminates，inbeingabletoread，andtowrite；andthegreatobjectofgovernmentconsistsinraising，andinconsumingthefruitsoftheearth。
Withalltheseresources，andthislearnedpreparation，whichismadetoturntheseresourcestouse，thestateisinrealityweak；hasrepeatedlygiventheexamplewhichweseektoexplain；
andamongthedoctorsofwarorofpolicy，amongthemillionswhoaresetapartforthemilitaryprofession，canfindnoneofitsmemberswhoarefittostandforthinthedangersoftheircountry，ortoformadefenceagainsttherepeatedinroadsofanenemyreputedtobeartlessandmean。
Itisdifficulttotellhowlongthedecayofstatesmightbesuspendedbythecultivationofartsonwhichtheirrealfelicityandstrengthdepend；bycultivatinginthehigherranksthosetalentsforthecouncilandthefield，whichcannot，withoutgreatdisadvantage，beseparated；andinthebodyofapeople，thatzealfortheircountry，andthatmilitarycharacter，whichenablethemtotakeashareindefendingitsrights。
Timesmaycome，wheneveryproprietormustdefendhisownpossessions，andeveryfreepeoplemaintaintheirownindependence。Wemayimagine，thatagainstsuchanextremity，anarmyofhiredtroopsisasufficientprecaution；buttheirowntroopsaretheveryenemyagainstwhichapeopleissometimesobligedtofight。Wemayflatterourselves，thatextremitiesofthissort，inanyparticularcase，areremote；butwecannot，inreasoningonthegeneralfortunesofmankind，avoidputtingthecase，andreferringtotheexamplesinwhichithashappened。Ithashappenedineveryinstancewherethepolishedhavefallenapreytotherude，andwherethepacificinhabitanthasbeenreducedtosubjectionbymilitaryforce。
Ifthedefenceandgovernmentofapeoplebemadetodependonafew，whomaketheconductofstateorofwartheirprofession；whetherthesebeforeignersornatives；whethertheybecalledawayofasudden，liketheRomanlegionfromBritain；
whethertheyturnagainsttheiremployers，likethearmyofCarthage，orbeoverpoweredanddispersedbyastrokeoffortune，themultitudeofacowardlyandundisciplinedpeoplemust，onsuchanemergence，receiveaforeignoradomesticenemy，astheywouldaplagueoranearthquake，withhopelessamazementandterror，andbytheirnumbers，onlyswellthetriumphs，andenrichthespoilofaconqueror。
Statesmenandleadersofarmies，accustomedtothemereobservanceofforms，aredisconcertedbyasuspensionofcustomaryrules；andonsightgroundsdespairoftheircountry。
Theywerequalifiedonlytogotheroundsofaparticulartrack；
andwhenforcedfromtheirstations，areinrealityunabletoactwithmen。Theyonlytookpartinformalities，ofwhichtheyunderstoodnotthetendency；andtogetherwiththemodesofprocedure，eventheverystateitself，intheirapprehension，hasceasedtoexist。Thenumbers，possessions，andresourcesofagreatpeople，onlyserve，intheirview，toconstituteasceneofhopelessconfusionandterror。
Inrudeages，undertheappellationsofacommunity，apeople，oranation，wasunderstoodanumberofmen；andthestate，whileitsmembersremained，wasaccountedentire。TheScythians，whiletheyJedbeforeDarius，mockedathischildishattempt；AthenssurvivedthedevastationsofXerxes；andRome，initsrudestate，thoseoftheGauls。Withpolishedandmercantilestates，thecaseissometimesreversed。Thenationisaterritory，cultivatedandimprovedbyitsowners；destroythepossession，evenwhilethemasterremains，thestateisundone。
Thatweaknessandeffeminacyofwhichpolishednationsaresometimesaccused，hasitsplaceprobablyinthemindalone。Thestrengthofanimals，andthatofmaninparticular，dependsonhisfeeding，andthekindoflabourtowhichheisused。
Wholesomefood，andhardlabour，theportionofmanyineverypolishedandcommercialnation，securetothepublicanumberofmenenduedwithbodilystrength，andinuredtohardshipandtoil。
Evendelicateliving，andgoodaccommodation，arenotfoundtoenervatethebody。ThearmiesofEuropehavebeenobligedtomaketheexperiment；andthechildrenofopulentfamilies，bredineffeminacy，ornursedwithtendercare，havebeenmadetocontendwiththesavage。Byimitatinghisarts，theyhavelearned，likehim，totraversetheforest；and，ineveryseason，tosubsistinthedesert。Theyhave，perhaps，recoveredalesson，whichithascostcivilizednationsmanyagestounlearn，Thatthefortuneofamanisentirewhileheremainspossessedofhimself。
Itmaybethought，however，thatfewofthecelebratednationsofantiquity，whosefatehasgivenrisetosomuchreJectiononthevicissitudesofhumanaffairs，hadmadeanygreatprogressinthoseenervatingartswehavementioned；ormadethosearrangementsfromwhichthedangerinquestioncouldbesupposedtoarise。TheGreeks，inparticular，atthetimeoftheirfallundertheMacedonianyoke，hadcertainlynotcarriedthecommercialartstosogreataheightasiscommonwiththemostflourishingandprosperousnationsofEurope。Theyhadstillretainedtheformofindependentrepublics；thepeopleweregenerallyadmittedtoashareinthegovernment；andnotbeingabletohirearmies，theywereobliged，bynecessity，tobearapartinthedefenceoftheircountry。Bytheirfrequentwarsanddomesticcommotions，theywereaccustomedtodanger，andwerefamiliarwithalarmingsituations:theywereaccordinglystillaccountedthebestsoldiersandthebeststatesmenoftheknownworld。TheyoungerCyruspromisedhimselftheempireofAsiabymeansoftheiraid；andafterhisfall，abodyoftenthousand，althoughbereftoftheirleaders，baffled，intheirretreat，allthemilitaryforceofthePersianempire。ThevictorofAsiadidnotthinkhimselfpreparedforthatconquest，tillhehadformedanarmyfromthesubduedrepublicsofGreece。
Itis，however，true，thatintheageofPhilip，themilitaryandpoliticalspiritofthosenationsappearstohavebeenconsiderablyimpaired，andtohavesuffered，perhaps，fromthevarietyOfinterestsandpursuits，aswellasofpleasures，withwhichtheirmemberscametobeoccupied:theyevenmadeakindofseparationbetweenthecivilandmilitarycharacter。Phocion，wearetoldbyPlutarch，havingobservedthattheleadingmenofhistimefolloweddifferentcourses，thatsomeappliedthemselvestocivil，otherstomilitaryaffairs，determinedrathertofollowtheexamplesofThemistocles，Aristides，andPericles，theleadersofaformerage，whowereequallypreparedforeither。
WefindintheorationsofDemosthenes，aperpetualreferencetothisstateofmanners。WefindhimexhortingtheAthenians，notonlytodeclarewar，buttoarmthemselvesfortheexecutionoftheirownmilitaryplans，Wefindthattherewasanorderofmilitarymen，whoeasilypassedfromtheserviceofonestatetothatofanother；andwho，whentheywereneglectedfromhome，turnedawaytoenterprisesontheirownaccount。Therewerenot，perhaps，betterwarriorsinanyformerage；butthosewarriorswerenotattachedtoanystate；andthesettledinhabitantsofeverycitythoughtthemselvesdisqualifiedformilitaryservice。
Thedisciplineofarmieswasperhapsimproved；butthevigourofnationswasgonetodecay。WhenPhilip，orAlexander，defeatedtheGrecianarmies，whichwerechieflycomposedofsoldiersoffortune，theyfoundaneasyconquestwiththeotherinhabitants:
andwhenthelatter，afterwardssupportedbythosesoldiers，invadedthePersianempire，heseemstohaveleftlittlemartialspiritbehindhim；andbyremovingthemilitarymen，tohavetakenprecautionenough，inhisabsence，tosecurehisdominionoverthismutinousandrefractorypeople。
Thesubdivisionofartsandprofessions，incertainexamples，tendstoimprovethepracticeofthem，andtopromotetheirends。
Byhavingseparatedtheartsoftheclothierandthetanner，wearethebettersuppliedwithshoesandwithcloth。Buttoseparatetheartswhichformthecitizenandthestatesman，theartsofpolicyandwar，isanattempttodismemberthehumancharacter，andtodestroythoseveryartswemeantoimprove。Bythisseparation，weineffectdepriveafreepeopleofwhatisnecessarytotheirsafety；orweprepareadefenceagainstinvasionsfromabroad，whichgivesaprospectofusurpation，andthreatenstheestablishmentofmilitarygovernmentathome。
WemaybesurprisedtofindthebeginningofcertainmilitaryinstructionsatRome，referredtoatimenoearlierthanthatoftheCimbricwar。Itwasthen，wearetoldbyValeriusMaximus，thatRomansoldiersweremadetolearnfromgladiatorstheuseofasword:andtheantagonistsofPhyrrhusandofHannibalwere，bytheaccountofthiswriter，stillinneedofinstructioninthefirstrudimentsoftheirtrade。Theyhadalready，bytheorderandchoiceoftheirincampments，impressedtheGrecianinvaderwithaweandrespect；theyhadalready，notbytheirvictories，butbytheirnationalvigourandfirmness，underrepeateddefeats，inducedhimtosueforpeace。ButthehaughtyRoman，perhaps，knewtheadvantageoforderandofunion，withouthavingbeenbroketotheinferiorartsofthemercenarysoldier；andhadthecouragetofacetheenemiesofhiscountry，withouthavingpractisedtheuseofhisweaponunderthefearofbeingwhipped。Hecouldillbepersuaded，thatatimemightcome，whenrefinedandintelligentnationswouldmaketheartofwartoconsistinafewtechnicalforms；thatcitizensandsoldiersmightcometobedistinguishedasmuchaswomenandmen；thatthecitizenwouldbecomepossessedofapropertywhichhewouldnotbeable，orrequired，todefend；thatthesoldierwouldbeappointedtokeepforanotherwhathewouldbetaughttodesire，andwhathewouldbeenabledtoseizeforhimself；that，inshort，onesetofmenweretohaveaninterestinthepreservationofcivilestablishments，withoutthepowertodefendthem；thattheotherweretohavethispower，withouteithertheinclinationortheinterest。
Thispeople，however，bydegreescametoputtheirmilitaryforceontheveryfootingtowhichthisdescriptionalludes。
MariusmadeacapitalchangeinthemanneroflevyingsoldiersatRome:Hefilledhislegionswiththemeanandtheindigent，whodependedonmilitarypayforsubsistence；hecreatedaforcewhichrestedonmeredisciplinealone，andtheskillofthegladiator；hetaughthistroopstoemploytheirswordsagainsttheconstitutionoftheircountry，andsettheexampleofapracticewhichwassoonadoptedandimprovedbyhissuccessors。
TheRomansonlymeantbytheirarmiestoincroachonthefreedomofothernations，whiletheypreservedtheirown。Theyforgot，thatinassemblingsoldiersoffortune，andinsufferinganyleadertobemasterofadisciplinedarmy，theyactuallyresignedtheirpoliticalrights，andsufferedamastertoariseforthestate。Thispeople，inshort，whoserulingpassionwasdepredationandconquest，perishedbytherecoilofanenginewhichtheythemselveshaderectedagainstmankind。
Theboastedrefinements，then，ofthepolishedage，arenotdivestedofdanger。Theyopenadoor，perhaps，todisaster，aswideandaccessibleasanyofthosetheyhaveshut。Iftheybuildwallsandramparts，theyenervatethemindsofthosewhoareplacedtodefendthem；iftheyformdisciplinedarmies，theyreducethemilitaryspiritofentirenations；andbyplacingtheswordwheretheyhavegivenadistastetocivilestablishments，theyprepareformankindthegovernmentofforce。
ItishappyforthenationsofEurope，thatthedisparitybetweenthesoldierandthepacificcitizencanneverbesogreatasitbecameamongtheGreeksandtheRomans。Intheuseofmodernarms，thenoviceismadetolearn，andtopractisewithease，allthattheveteranknows；andiftoteachhimwereamatterofrealdifficulty，happyaretheywhoarenotdeterredbysuchdifficulties，andwhocandiscovertheartswhichtendtofortifyandpreserve，nottoenervateandruintheircountry。
SectionV。
OfNationalWaste。
Thestrengthofnationsconsistsinthewealth，thenumbers，andthecharacter，oftheirpeople。Thehistoryoftheirprogressfromastateofrudeness，is，forthemostpart，adetailofthestrugglestheyhavemaintained，andoftheartstheyhavepractised，tostrengthen，ortoSecurethemselves。Theirconquests，theirpopulation，andtheircommerce，theircivilandmilitaryarrangements，theirskillintheconstructionofweapons，andinthemethodsofattackanddefence；theverydistributionoftasks，whetherinprivatebusinessorinpublicaffairs，eithertendtobestow，orpromisetoemploywithadvantage，theconstituentsofanationalforce，andtheresourcesofwar。
Ifwesuppose，thattogetherwiththeseadvantages，themilitarycharacterofapeopleremains，orisimproved，itmustfollow，thatwhatisgainedincivilization，isarealincreaseofstrength；andthattheruinofnationscouldnevertakeitsrisefromthemselves。Wherestateshavestoppedshortintheirprogress，orhaveactuallygonetodecay，wemaysuspect，thathoweverdisposedtoadvance，theyhavefoundalimit，beyondwhichtheycouldnotproceed；orfromaremissionofthenationalspirit，andaweaknessofcharacter，wereunabletomakethemostoftheirresources，andnaturaladvantages。Onthissupposition，frombeingstationary，theymaybegintorelapse，andbyaretrogrademotion，inasuccessionofages，arriveatastateofgreaterweakness，thanthatwhichtheyquittedinthebeginningoftheirprogress；andwiththeappearanceofbetterarts，andsuperiorconduct，exposethemselvestobecomeapreytobarbarians，whom，intheattainment，ortheheightoftheirglory，theyhadeasilybaffledordespised。
Whatevermaybethenaturalwealthofapeople，orwhatevermaybethelimitsbeyondwhichtheycannotimproveontheirstock，itisprobable，thatnonationhaseverreachedthoselimits，orhasbeenabletopostponeitsmisfortunes，andtheeffectsofmisconduct，untilitsfundofmaterials，andthefertilityofitssoil，wereexhausted，orthenumbersofitspeopleweregreatlyreduced。Thesameerrorsinpolicy，andweaknessofmanners，whichpreventtheproperuseofresources，likewisechecktheirincrease，orimprovement。
Thewealthofthestateconsistsinthefortuneofitsmembers。Theactualrevenueofthestateisthatshareofeveryprivatefortune，whichthepublichasbeenaccustomedtodemandfornationalpurposes。Thisrevenuecannotbealwaysproportionedtowhatmaybesupposedredundantintheprivateestate，buttowhatis，insomemeasure，thoughtsobytheowner；andtowhathemaybemadetospare，withoutintrenchingonhismannerofliving，andwithoutsuspendinghisprojectsofexpence，orofcommerce。Itshouldappear，therefore，thatanyimmoderateincreaseofprivateexpenceisapreludetonationalweakness:
government，evenwhileeachofitssubjectsconsumesaprincelyestate，maybestraitenedinpointofrevenue，andtheparadoxbeexplainedbyexample，Thatthepublicispoor，whileitsmembersarerich。
Wearefrequentlyledintoerrorbymistakingmoneyforriches；wethinkthatapeoplecannotbeimpoverishedbyawasteofmoneywhichisspentamongthemselves。Thefactis，thatmenareimpoverished，onlyintwoways；eitherbyhavingtheirgainssuspended，orbyhavingtheirsubstanceconsumed；andmoneyexpendedathome，beingcirculated，andnotconsumed，cannot，anymorethantheexchangeofatally，oracounter，amongacertainnumberofhands，tendtodiminishthewealthofthecompanyamongwhomitishandedabout。Butwhilemoneycirculatesathome，thenecessariesoflife，whicharetherealconstituentsofwealth，maybeidlyconsumed；theindustrywhichmightbeemployedtoincreasethestockofapeople，maybesuspended，orturnedtoabuse。
Greatarmies，maintainedeitherathomeorabroad，withoutanynationalobject，aresomanymouthsunnecessarilyopenedtowastethestoresofthepublic，andsomanyhandswith-heldfromtheartsbywhichitsprofitsaremade。Unsuccessfulenterprisesaresomanyventuresthrownaway，andlossessustained，proportionedtothecapitalemployedintheservice。TheHelvetii，inordertoinvadetheRomanprovinceofGaul，burnttheirhabitations，dropttheirinstrumentsofhusbandry，andconsumed，inoneyear，thesavingsofmany。Theenterprisefailedofsuccess，andthenationwasundone。
Stateshaveendeavoured，insomeinstances，bypawningtheircredit，insteadofemployingtheircapital，todisguisethehazardstheyran。Theyhavefound，intheloanstheyraised，acasualresource，whichencouragedtheirenterprises。Theyhaveseemed，bytheirmanneroferectingtransferablefunds，toleavethecapitalforpurposesoftrade，inthehandsofthesubject，whileitisactuallyexpendedbythegovernment。Theyhave，bythesemeans，proceededtotheexecutionofgreatnationalprojects，withoutsuspendingprivateindustry，andhaveleftfutureagestoanswer，inpart，fordebtscontractedwithaviewtofutureemolument。Sofartheexpedientisplausible，andappearstobejust。Thegrowingburdentoo，isthusgraduallylaid；andifanationbetosinkinsomefutureage，everyministerhopesitmaystillkeepafloatinhisown。Butthemeasure，forthisveryreason，is，withallitsadvantages，extremelydangerous，inthehandsofaprecipitantandambitiousadministration，regardingonlythepresentoccasion，andimaginingastatetobeinexhaustible，whileacapitalcanbeborrowed，andtheinterestbepaid。
Wearetoldofanation，who，duringacertainperiod，rivalledthegloriesoftheancientworld，threwoffthedominionofamasterarmedagainstthemwiththepowersofagreatkingdom，broketheyokewithwhichtheyhadbeenoppressed，andalmostwithinthecourseofacentury，raised，bytheirindustryandnationalvigour，anewandformidablepower，whichstrucktheformerpotentatesofEuropewithaweandsuspense，andturnedthebadgesofpovertywithwhichtheysetout，intotheensignsofwaranddominion。Thisendwasattainedbythegreateffortsofaspiritawakedbyoppression，byasuccessfulpursuitofnationalwealth，andbyarapidanticipationoffuturerevenue。Butthisillustriousstateissupposed，notonlyinthelanguageofaformersection，tohavepreoccupiedthebusiness；theyhavesequesteredtheinheritanceofmanyagestocome。
Greatnationalexpence，however，doesnotimplythenecessityofanynationalsuffering。Whilerevenueisappliedwithsuccess，toobtainsomevaluableend；theprofitsofeveryadventure，beingmorethansufficienttorepayitscosts，thepublicshouldgain，anditsresourcesshouldcontinuetomultiply。Butanexpence，whethersustainedathomeorabroad，whetherawasteofthepresent，orananticipationoffuture，revenue，ifitbringnoproperreturn，istobereckonedamongthecausesofnationalruin。
NOTES:
1。Shralenberg。
2。GemelliCarceri。
3。MemoirsofBrandenberg。
PartSixth。
OfCorruptionandPoliticalSlavery。
SectionI。
OfCorruptioningeneralIfthefortuneofnations，andtheirtendencytoaggrandisement，ortoruin，weretobeestimatedbymerelybalancing，ontheprinciplesoflastsection，articlesofprofitandloss，everyargumentinpoliticswouldrestonacomparisonofnationalexpencewithnationalgain；onacomparisonofthenumberswhoconsume，withthosewhoproduceoramassthenecessariesoflife。Thecolumnsoftheindustrious，andtheidle，wouldincludeallordersofmen；andthestateitself，beingallowedasmanymagistrates，politicians，andwarriors，aswerebarelysufficientforitsdefenceanditsgovernment，shouldplace，onthesideofitsloss，everynamethatissupernumeraryonthecivilorthemilitarylist；allthoseordersofmen，who，bythepossessionoffortune，subsistonthegainsofothers，andbythenicetyoftheirchoice，requireagreatexpenceoftimeandoflabour，tosupplytheirconsumption；allthosewhoareidlyemployedinthetrainofpersonsofrank；allthosewhoareengagedintheprofessionsoflaw，physic，ordivinity，togetherwithallthelearned，whodonot，bytheirstudies，promoteorimprovethepracticeofsomelucrativetrade。Thevalueofeveryperson，inshort，shouldbecomputedfromhislabour；andthatoflabouritself，fromitstendencytoprocureandamassthemeansofsubsistence。Theartsemployedonmeresuperfluitiesshouldbeprohibited，exceptwhentheirproducecouldbeexchangedwithforeignnations，forcommoditiesthatmightbeemployedtomaintainusefulmenforthepublic。
Theseappeartobetherulesbywhichamiserwouldexaminethestateofhisownaffairs，orthoseofhiscountry；butschemesofperfectcorruptionareatleastasimpracticableasschemesofperfectvirtue。Menarenotuniversallymisers；theywillnotbesatisfiedwiththepleasureofhoarding；theymustbesufferedtoenjoytheirwealth，inorderthattheymaytakethetroubleofbecomingrich。Property，inthecommoncourseofhumanaffairs，isunequallydivided:wearethereforeobligedtosufferthewealthytosquander，thatthepoormaysubsist；weareobligedtotoleratecertainordersofmen，whoareabovethenecessityoflabour，inorderthat，intheircondition，theremaybeanobjectofambition，andaranktowhichthebusyaspire。Wearenotonlyobligedtoadmitnumbers，who，instrictoeconomy，maybereckonedsuperfluous，onthecivil，themilitary，andthepoliticallist；butbecausewearemen，andprefertheoccupation，improvement，andfelicityofournature，toitsmereexistence，wemustevenwish，thatasmanymembersaspossible，ofeverycommunity，maybeadmittedtoashareofitsdefenceanditsgovernment。
Men，infact，whiletheypursueinsocietydifferentobjects，orseparateviews，procureawidedistributionofpower，andbyaspeciesofchance，arriveatapostureforcivilengagements，morefavourabletohumannaturethanwhathumanwisdomcouldevercalmlydevise。
Ifthestrengthofanation，inthemeantime，consistsinthemenonwhomitmayrely，andwhoarefortunatelyorwiselycombinedforitspreservation，itfollows，thatmannersareasimportantaseithernumbersorwealth；andthatcorruptionistobeaccountedaprincipalcauseofnationaldeclensionandruin。
Whoeverperceiveswhatarethequalitiesofmaninhisexcellence，mayeasily，bythatstandard，distinguishhisdefectsorcorruptions。Ifanintelligent，acourageous，andanaffectionatemind，constitutestheperfectionofhisnature，remarkablefailingsinanyofthoseparticulars，mustproportionallysinkordebasehischaracter。
Wehaveobserved，thatitisthehappinessoftheindividualtomakearightchoiceofhisconduct；thatthischoicewillleadhimtoloseinsocietythesenseofapersonalinterest；and，intheconsiderationofwhatisduetothewhole，tostiflethoseanxietieswhichrelatetohimselfasapart。
Thenaturaldispositionofmantohumanity，andthewarmthofhistemper，mayraisehischaractertothisfortunatepitch。Hiselevation，inagreatmeasure，dependsontheformofhissociety；buthecan，withoutincurringthechargeofcorruption，accommodatehimselftogreatvariationsintheconstitutionsofgovernment。Thesameintegrity，andvigorousspirit，which，indemocraticalstates，rendershimtenaciousofhisequality，may，underaristocracyormonarchy，leadhimtomaintainthesubordinationsestablished。Hemayentertain，towardsthedifferentranksofmenwithwhomheisyokedinthestate，maximsofrespectandofcandour。hemay，inthechoiceofhisactions，followaprincipleofjustice，andofhonour，whichtheconsiderationsofsafety，preferment，orprofit，cannotefface。
Fromourcomplaintsofnationaldepravity，itshould，notwithstanding，appear，thatwholebodiesofmenaresometimesinfectedwithanepidemicalweaknessofthehead，orcorruptionofheart，bywhichtheybecomeunfitforthestationstheyoccupy，andthreatenthestatestheycompose，howeverflourishing，withaprospectofdecay，andofruin。
Achangeofnationalmannersfortheworse，mayarisefromadiscontinuanceofthescenesinwhichthetalentsofmenwerehappilycultivated，andbroughtintoexercise；orfromachangeintheprevailingopinionsrelatingtotheconstituentsofhonoursorofhappiness。Whenmereriches，orcourt-favour，aresupposedtoconstituterank；themindismisledfromtheconsiderationofqualitiesonwhichitoughttorely。
Magnanimity，courage，andtheloveofmankind，aresacrificedtoavariceandvanity，orsuppressedunderasenseofdependence。
Theindividualconsidershiscommunitysofaronlyasitcanberenderedsubservienttohispersonaladvancementorprofit:hestateshimselfincompetitionwithhisfellow-creatures；and，urgedbythepassionsofemulation，offearandjealousy，ofenvyandmalice，hefollowsthemaximsofananimaldestinedtopreservehisseparateexistence，andtoindulgehiscapriceorhisappetite，attheexpenceofhisspecies。
Onthiscorruptfoundation，menbecomeeitherrapacious，deceitful，andviolent，readytotrespassontherightsofothers；orservile，mercenary，andbase，preparedtorelinquishtheirown。Talents，capacity，andforceofmind，possessedbyapersonofthefirstdescription，servetoplungehimthedeeperinmisery，andtosharpentheagonyofcruelpassions；whichleadhimtowreakonhisfellow-creaturesthetormentsthatpreyonhimself。Toapersonofthesecond，imagination，andreasonitself，onlyservetopointoutfalseobjectsoffear，ordesire，andtomultiplythesubjectsofdisappointment，andofmomentaryjoy。Ineithercase，andwhetherwesupposethatcorruptmenareurgedbycovetousness，orbetrayedbyfear，andwithoutspecifyingthecrimeswhichfromeitherdispositiontheyarepreparedtocommit，wemaysafelyaffirm，withSocrates，’Thateverymastershouldprayhemaynotmeetwithsuchaslave；andeverysuchperson，beingunfitforliberty，shouldimplorethathemaymeetwithamercifulmaster。’
Man，underthismeasureofcorruption，althoughhemaybeboughtforaslavebythosewhoknowhowtoturnhisfacultiesandhislabourtoprofit；andalthough，whenkeptunderproperrestraints，hisneighbourhoodmaybeconvenientoruseful；yetiscertainlyunfittoactonthefootingofaliberalcombinationorconcertwithhisfellow-creatures:hismindisnotaddictedtofriendshiporconfidence；heisnotwillingtoactforthepreservationofothers，nordeservesthatanyothershouldhazardhisownsafetyforhis。
Theactualcharacterofmankind，mean-time，intheworst，aswellasthebestcondition，isundoubtedlymixed:andnationsofthebestdescriptionaregreatlyobligedfortheirpreservation，notonlytothegooddispositionoftheirmembers，butlikewisetothosepoliticalinstitutions，bywhichtheviolentarerestrainedfromthecommissionofcrimes，andthecowardly，ortheselfish，aremadetocontributetheirparttothepublicdefenceorprosperity。Bymeansofsuchinstitutions，andthewiseprecautionsofgovernment，nationsareenabledtosubsist，andeventoprosper，underverydifferentdegreesofcorruption，orofpublicintegrity。
Solongasthemajorityofapeopleissupposedtoactonmaximsofprobity，theexampleofthegood，andeventhecautionofthebad，giveageneralappearanceofintegrity，andofinnocence。Wheremenaretooneanotherobjectsofaffectionandofconfidence，wheretheyaregenerallydisposednottooffend，governmentmayberemiss；andeverypersonmaybetreatedasinnocent，tillheisfoundtobeguilty。Asthesubjectinthiscasedoesnothearofthecrimes，soheneednotbetoldofthepunishmentsinflictedonpersonsofadifferentcharacter。Butwherethemannersofapeopleareconsiderablychangedfortheworse，everysubjectmuststandonhisguard，andgovernmentitselfmustactonsuitablemaximsoffearanddistrust。Theindividual，nolongerfittobeindulgedinhispretensionstopersonalconsideration，independence，orfreedom，eachofwhichhewouldturntoabuse，mustbetaught，byexternalforce，andfrommotivesoffear，tocounterfeitthoseeffectsofinnocence，andofduty，towhichheisnotdisposed:hemustbereferredtothewhip，orthegibbet，forargumentsinsupportofacaution，whichthestatenowrequireshimtoassume，onasuppositionthatheisinsensibletothemotiveswhichrecommendthepracticeofvirtue。
Therulesofdespotismaremadeforthegovernmentofcorruptedmen。Theywereindeedfollowedonsomeremarkableoccasions，evenundertheRomancommonwealth；andthebloodyaxe，toterrifythecitizenfromhiscrimes，andtorepelthecasualandtemporaryirruptionsofvice，wasrepeatedlycommittedtothearbitrarywillofthedictator。Theywerefinallyestablishedontheruinsoftherepublicitself，wheneitherthepeoplebecametoocorruptedforfreedom，orwhenthemagistratebecametoocorruptedtoresignhisdictatorialpower。Thisspeciesofgovernmentcomesnaturallyintheterminationofacontinuedandgrowingcorruption；buthasnodoubt，insomeinstances，cometoosoon，andhassacrificedremainsofvirtue，thatdeservedabetterfate，tothejealousyoftyrants，whowereinhastetoaugmenttheirpower。Thismethodofgovernmentcannot，insuchcases，failtointroducethatmeasureofcorruption，againstwhoseexternaleffectsitisdesiredasaremedy。Whenfearissuggestedastheonlymotivetoduty，everyheartbecomesrapaciousorbase。Andthismedicine，ifappliedtoahealthybody，issuretocreatethedistemperitisdestinedtocure。
Thisisthemannerofgovernmentintowhichthecovetous，andthearrogant，tosatiatetheirunhappydesires，wouldhurrytheirfellow-creatures:itisamannerofgovernmenttowhichthetimorousandtheservilesubmitatdiscretion；andwhenthesecharactersoftherapaciousandthetimiddividemankind，eventhevirtuesofAntoninusorTrajan，candonomorethanapply，withcandourandwithvigour，thewhipandthesword；andendeavour，bythehopesofreward，orthefearofpunishment，tofindaspeedyandatemporarycureforthecrimes，ortheimbecilitiesofmen。
Otherstatesmaybemoreorlesscorrupted:thishascorruptionforitsbasis。Herejusticemaysometimesdirectthearmofthedespoticalsovereign；butthenameofjusticeismostcommonlyemployedtosignifytheinterest，orthecaprice，ofareigningpower。Humansociety，susceptibleofsuchavarietyofforms，herefindsthesimplestofall。Thetoilsandpossessionsofmanyaredestinedtoasswagethepassionsofoneorafew；andtheonlypartiesthatremainamongmankind，aretheoppressorwhodemands，andtheoppressedwhodarenotrefuse。
Nations，whiletheywereintitledtoamilderfate，asinthecaseoftheGreeks，repeatedlyconquered，havebeenreducedtothisconditionbymilitaryforce。Theyhavereachedittoointhematurityoftheirowndepravations；when，liketheRomans，returnedfromtheconquest，andloadedwiththespoils，oftheworld，theygaveloosetofaction，andtocrimestooboldandtoofrequentforthecorrectionofordinarygovernment；andwhentheswordofjustice，droppingwithblood，andperpetuallyrequiredtosuppressaccumulatingdisordersoneveryside，couldnolongerawaitthedelaysandprecautionsofanadministrationfetteredbylaws。
Itis，however，wellknownfromthehistoryofmankind，thatcorruptionofthis，orofanyotherdegree，isnotpeculiartonationsintheirdecline，orintheresultofsignalprosperity，andgreatadvancesintheartsofcommerce。’Thebandsofsociety，indeed，insmallandinfantestablishments，aregenerallystrong；andtheirsubjects，eitherbyanardentdevotiontotheirowntribe，oravehementanimosityagainstenemies，andbyavigorouscouragefoundedonboth，arewellqualifiedtourge，ortosustain，thefortuneofagrowingcommunity。Butthesavage，andthebarbarian，havegiven，notwithstanding，inthecaseofentirenations，someexamplesofaweakandtimorouscharacter。(1*)Theyhave，inmoreinstances，fallenintothatspeciesofcorruptionwhichwehavealreadydescribedintreatingofbarbarousnations；theyhavemaderapinetheirtrade，notmerelyasaspeciesofwarfare，orwithaviewtoenrichtheircommunity，buttopossess，inproperty，whattheylearnedtoprefereventothetiesofaffectionorofblood。
Intheloweststateofcommercialarts，thepassionsforwealth，andfordominion，haveexhibitedscenesofoppression，orservility，whichthemostfinishedcorruptionofthearrogant，thecowardly，andthemercenary，foundedonthedesireofprocuring，orthefearoflosing，afortune，couldnotexceed。Insuchcases，thevicesofmen，unrestrainedbyforms，andunawedbypolice，aresufferedtoriotatlarge，andtoproducetheirentireeffects。Partiesaccordinglyunite，orseparate，onthemaximsofagangofrobbers；theysacrificetointerestthetenderestaffectionsofhumannature。Theparentsuppliesthemarketforslaves，evenbythesaleofhisownchildren；thecottageceasestobeasanctuaryfortheweakandthedefencelessstranger；andritesofhospitality，oftensosacredamongnationsintheirprimitivestate，cometobeviolated，likeeveryothertieofhumanity，withoutfearorremorse。(2*)
Nations，whichinlaterperiodsoftheirhistorybecameeminentforcivilwisdomandjustice，had，perhaps，inaformerage，paroxysmsoflawlessdisorder，towhichthisdescriptionmightinpartbeapplied。Theverypolicybywhichtheyarrivedattheirdegreeofnationalfelicity，wasdevisedasaremedyforoutrageousabuse。Theestablishmentoforderwasdatedfromthecommissionofrapesandmurders；indignation，andprivaterevenge，weretheprinciplesonwhichnationsproceededtotheexpulsionoftyrants，totheemancipationofmankind，andthefullexplanationoftheirpoliticalrights。
Defectsofgovernment，andoflaw，maybeinsomecasesconsideredasasymptomofinnocenceandofvirtue。Butwherepowerisalreadyestablished，wherethestrongareunwillingtosufferrestraint，ortheweakunabletofindaprotection，thedefectsoflawaremarksofthemostperfectcorruption。
Amongrudenations，governmentisoftendefective；bothbecausemenarenotyetacquaintedwithalltheevilsforwhichpolishednationshaveendeavouredtofindaredress；andbecause，evenwhereevilsofthemostflagrantnaturehavelongafflictedthepeaceofsociety，theyhavenotyetbeenabletoapplythecure。Intheprogressofcivilization，newdistempersbreakforth，andnewremediesareapplied:buttheremedyisnotalwaysappliedthemomentthedistemperappears；andlaws，thoughsuggestedbythecommissionofcrimes，arenotthesymptomofarecentcorruption，butofadesiretofindaremedythatmaycure，perhaps，someinveterateevilwhichhaslongafflictedthestate。
Therearecorruptions，however，underwhichmenstillpossessthevigourandtheresolutiontocorrectthemselves。Sucharetheviolenceandtheoutragewhichaccompanythecollisionoffierceanddaringspirits，occupiedinthestruggleswhichsometimesprecedethedawnofcivilandcommercialimprovements。Insuchcases，menhavefrequentlydiscoveredaremedyforevils，ofwhichtheirownmisguidedimpetuosity，andsuperiorforceofmind，weretheprincipalcauses。Butiftoadepraveddisposition，wesupposetobejoinedaweaknessofspirit；iftoanadmiration，anddesireofriches，bejoinedanaversiontodangerorbusiness；ifthoseordersofmenwhosevalourisrequiredbythepublic，ceasetobebrave；ifthemembersofsociety，ingeneral，havenotthosepersonalqualitieswhicharerequiredtofillthestationsofequality，orofhonour，towhichtheyareinvitedbytheformsofthestate；theymustsinktoadepthfromwhichtheirimbecility，evenmorethantheirdepravedinclinations，maypreventtheirrise。
SectionII。
OfLuxuryWearefarfrombeingagreedontheapplicationofthetermluxury，oronthatdegreeofitsmeaningwhichisconsistentwithnationalprosperity，orwiththemoralrectitudeofournature。
Itissometimesemployedtosignifyamanneroflifewhichwethinknecessarytocivilization，andeventohappiness。Itis，inourpanegyricofpolishedages，theparentofarts，thesupportofcommerce，andtheministerofnationalgreatness，andofopulence。Itis，inourcensureofdegeneratemanners，thesourceofcorruption，andthepresageofnationaldeclensionandruin。
Itisadmired，anditisblamed；itistreatedasornamentalanduseful；anditisproscribedasavice。
Withallthisdiversityinourjudgements，wearegenerallyuniforminemployingthetermtosignifythatcomplicatedapparatuswhichmankinddevisefortheeaseandconvenienceoflife。Theirbuildings，furniture，equipage，cloathing，trainofdomestics，refinementofthetable，and，ingeneral，allthatassemblagewhichisratherintendedtopleasethefancy，thantoobviaterealwants，andwhichisratherornamentalthanuseful。
Whenwearedisposed，therefore，undertheappellationofluxury，toranktheenjoymentofthesethingsamongthevices，weeithertacitlyrefertothehabitsofsensuality，debauchery，prodigality，vanity，andarrogance，withwhichthepossessionofhighfortuneissometimesattended；orweapprehendacertainmeasureofwhatisnecessarytohumanlife，beyondwhichallenjoymentsaresupposedtobeexcessiveandvicious。When，onthecontrary，luxuryismadeanarticleofnationallustreandfelicity，weonlythinkofitasaninnocentconsequenceoftheunequaldistributionofwealth，andasamethodbywhichdifferentranksarerenderedmutuallydependent，andmutuallyuseful。Thepooraremadetopractisearts，andtherichtorewardthem。Thepublicitselfismadeagainerbywhatseemstowasteitsstock，anditreceivesaperpetualincreaseofwealth，fromtheinfluenceofthosegrowingappetites，anddelicatetastes，whichseemtomenaceconsumptionandruin。
Itiscertain，thatwemusteither，togetherwiththecommercialarts，suffertheirfruitstobeenjoyed，andeven，insomemeasure，admired；or，liketheSpartans，prohibittheartitself，whileweareafraidofitsconsequences，orwhilewethinkthattheconvenienciesitbringsexceedwhatnaturerequires。
Wemayproposetostoptheadvancementofartsatanystageoftheirprogress，andstillincurtheCensureofluxuryfromthosewhohavenotadvancedsofar。Thehouse-builderandthecarpenteratSpartawerelimitedtotheuseoftheaxeandthesaw；butaSpartancottagemighthavepassedforapalaceinThrace:andifthedisputeweretoturnontheknowledgeofwhatisphysicallynecessarytothepreservationofhumanlife，asthestandardofwhatismorallylawful，thefacultiesofphysic，aswellasofmorality，wouldprobablydivideonthesubject，andleaveeveryindividual，asatpresent，tofindsomeruleforhimself。Thecasuist，forthemostpart，considersthepracticeofhisownageandcondition，asastandardformankind。Ifinoneageorcondition，hecondemntheuseofacoach，inanotherbewouldhavenolesscensuredthewearingofshoes；andtheverypersonwhoexclaimsagainstthefirst，wouldprobablynothavesparedthesecond，ifithadnotbeenalreadyfamiliarinagesbeforehisown。Acensorborninacottage，andaccustomedtosleepuponstraw，doesnotproposethatmenshouldreturntothewoodsandthecavesforshelter；headmitsthereasonablenessandtheutilityofwhatisalreadyfamiliar；andapprehendsanexcessandcorruption，onlyinthenewestrefinementoftherisinggeneration。
TheclergyofEuropehavepreachedsuccessivelyagainsteverynewfashion，andeveryinnovationindress。ThemodesofyoutharethesubjectofCensuretotheold；andmodesofthelastage，intheirturn，arematterofridiculetotheflippant，andtheyoung。Ofthisthereisnotalwaysabetteraccounttobegiven，thanthattheoldaredisposedtobesevere，andtheyoungtobemerry。
Theargumentagainstmanyoftheconveniencesoflife，drawnfromthemereconsiderationoftheirnotbeingnecessary，wasequallyproperinthemouthofthesavage，whodissuadedfromthefirstapplicationsofindustry，asitisinthatofthemoralist，whoinsistsonthevanityofthelast。’Ourancestors，’hemightsay，’foundtheirdwellingunderthisrock；theygatheredtheirfoodintheforest；theyallayedtheirthirstfromthefountain；
andtheywereclothedinthespoilsofthebeasttheyhadslain。
Whyshouldweindulgeafalsedelicacy，orrequirefromtheearthfruitswhichsheisnotaccustomedtoyield？Thebowofourfathersisalreadytoostrongforourarms；andthewildbeastbeginstolorditinthewoods。’
Thusthemoralistmayhavefound，intheproceedingsofeveryage，thosetopicsofblame，fromwhichheissomuchdisposedtoarraignthemannersofhisown；andourimbarrassmentonthesubject，is，perhaps，butapartofthatgeneralperplexitywhichweundergo，intryingtodefinemoralcharactersbyexternalcircumstances，whichmay，ormaynot，beattendedwithfaultsinthemindandtheheart。Onemanfindsaviceinthewearingoflinen；anotherdoesnot，unlessthefabricbefine:andif，mean-time，itbetrue，thatapersonmaybedressedinmanufacture，eithercoarseorfine；thathemaysleepinthefields，orlodgeinapalace；treaduponcarpet，orplanthisfootontheground；whilethemindeitherretains，orhaslost，itspenetration，anditsvigour，andtheheartitsaffectiontomankind，itisvain，underanysuchcircumstance，toseekforthedistinctionsofvirtueandvice，ortotaxthepolishedcitizenwithweaknessforanypartofhisequipage，orforhiswearingafur，perhaps，inwhichsomesavagewasdressedbeforehim。Vanityisnotdistinguishedbyanypeculiarspeciesofdress。ItisbetrayedbytheIndianinthephantasticassortmentsofhisplumes，hisshells，hisparty-colouredfurs，andinthetimehebestowsattheglassandthetoilet。Itsprojectsinthewoodsandinthetownarethesame:intheone，itseeks，withthevisagebedaubed，andwithteethartificiallystained，forthatadmiration，whichitcourtsintheotherwithagildedequipage，andliveriesofstate。
Polishednations，intheirprogress，oftencometosurpasstherudeinmoderation，andseverityofmanners。’TheGreeks，’
saysThucydides，’notlongago，likebarbarians，woregoldenspanglesinthehair，andwentarmedintimesofpeace。’
Simplicityofdressinthispeople，becameamarkofpoliteness:
andthemerematerialswithwhichthebodyisnourishedorclothed，areprobablyoflittleconsequencetoanypeople。Wemustlookforthecharactersofmeninthequalitiesofthemind，notinthespeciesoftheirfood，orinthemodeoftheirapparel。Whatarenowtheornamentsofthegrave，andsevere；
whatisownedtobearealconveniency，wereoncethefopperiesofyouth，orweredevisedtopleasetheeffeminate。Thenewfashion，indeed，isoftenthemarkofthecoxcomb；butwefrequentlychangeourfashions，withoutincreasingthemeasuresofourvanityorfolly。
Aretheapprehensionsofthesevere，therefore，ineveryage，equallygroundlessandunreasonable？Arewenevertodreadanyerrorinthearticleofarefinementbestowedonthemeansofsubsistence，ortheconvenienciesoflife？Thefactis，thatmenareperpetuallyexposedtothecommissionoferrorinthisarticle，notmerelywheretheyareaccustomedtohighmeasuresofaccommodation，ortoanyparticularspeciesoffood，butwhere-evertheseobjects，ingeneral，maycometobepreferredtofriends，toacountry，ortomankind；theyactuallycommitsucherror，where-evertheyadmirepaultrydistinctionsorfrivolousadvantages；where-evertheyshrinkfromsmallinconveniencies，andareincapableofdischargingtheirdutywithvigour。Theuseofmoralityonthissubject，isnottolimitmentoanyparticularspeciesoflodging，diet，orcloaths；buttopreventtheirconsideringtheseconvenienciesastheprincipalobjectsofhumanlife。Andifweareasked，Wherethepursuitoftriflingaccommodationsshouldstop，inorderthatamanmaydevotehimselfentirelytothehigherengagementsoflife？wemayanswer，Thatitshouldstopwhereitis。ThiswastherulefollowedatSparta:Theobjectoftherulewas，topreservetheheartentireforthepublic，andtooccupymenincultivatingtheirownnature，notinaccumulatingwealth，andexternalconveniencies。Itwasnotexpectedotherwise，thattheaxeorthesawshouldbeattendedwithgreaterpoliticaladvantage，thantheplaneandthechisel。WhenCatowalkedthestreetsofRomewithouthisrobe，andwithoutshoes，hedidso，mostprobably，incontemptofwhathiscountrymenweresopronetoadmire；notinhopesoffindingavirtueinonespeciesofdress，oraviceinanother。
Luxury，therefore，consideredasapredilectioninfavouroftheobjectsofvanity，andthecostlymaterialsofpleasure，isruinoustothehumancharacter；consideredasthemereuseofaccommodationsandconveniencieswhichtheagehasprocured，ratherdependsontheprogresswhichthemechanicalartshavemade，andonthedegreeinwhichthefortunesofmenareunequallyparcelled，thanonthedispositionsofparticularmeneithertoviceortovirtue。
Differentmeasuresofluxuryare，however，variouslysuitedtodifferentconstitutionsofgovernment。Theadvancementofartssupposesanunequaldistributionoffortune；andthemeansofdistinctiontheybring，servetorendertheseparationofranksmoresensible。Luxuryis，uponthisaccount，apartfromallitsmoraleffects，adversetotheformofdemocraticalgovernment；
andinanystateofsociety，canbesafelyadmittedinthatdegreeonlyinwhichthemembersofthecommunityaresupposedofunequalrank，andconstitutepublicorderbymeansofaregularsubordination。Highdegreesofitappearsalutary，andevennecessary，inmonarchicalandmixedgovernments；where，besidestheencouragementtoartsandcommerce，itservestogivelustretothosehereditaryorconstitutionaldignitieswhichhaveaplaceofimportanceinthepoliticalsystem。Whetherevenhereluxuryleadstoabusepeculiartoagesofhighrefinementandopulence，weshallproceedtoconsiderinthefollowingsections。
SectionIII。
OftheCorruptionincidenttoPolishedNations。
Luxuryandcorruptionarefrequentlycoupledtogether，andevenpassforsynonymousterms。Butinordertoavoidanydisputeaboutwords，bythefirstwemayunderstandthataccumulationofwealth，andthatrefinementOnthewaysofenjoyingit，whicharetheobjectsofindustry，orthefruitsofmechanicandcommercialarts:Andbythesecondarealweakness，ordepravityofthehumancharacter，whichmayaccompanyanystateofthosearts，andbefoundunderanyexternalcircumstancesorconditionwhatsoever。Itremainstoinquire，Whatarethecorruptionsincidenttopolishednations，arrivedatcertainmeasuresofluxury，andpossessedofcertainadvantages，inwhichtheyaregenerallysupposedtoexcel？
Weneednothaverecoursetoaparallelbetweenthemannersofentirenations，intheextremesofcivilizationandrudeness，inordertobesatisfied，thatthevicesofmenarenotproportionedtotheirfortunes；orthatthehabitsofavarice，orofsensuality，arenotfoundedonanycertainmeasuresofwealth，ordeterminatekindofenjoyment。Wherethesituationsofparticularmenarevariedasmuchbytheirpersonalstations，astheycanbebythestateofnationalrefinements，thesamepassionsforinterest，orpleasure，prevailineverycondition。
Theyarisefromtemperament，oranacquiredadmirationofproperty；notfromanyparticularmanneroflifeinwhichthepartiesareengaged，norfromanyparticularspeciesofproperty，whichmayhaveoccupiedtheircaresandtheirwishes。
Temperanceandmoderationare，atleast，asfrequentamongthosewhomwecallthesuperior，astheyareamongthelowerclassesofmen；andhoweverwemayaffixthecharacterofsobrietytomerecheapnessofdiet，andotheraccommodationswithwhichanyparticularage，orrankofmen，appeartobecontented，itiswellknown，thatcostlymaterialsarenotnecessarytoconstituteadebauch，norprofligacylessfrequentunderthethatchedroof，thanundertheloftyceiling。Mengrowequallyfamiliarwithdifferentconditions，receiveequalpleasure，andareequallyalluredtosensuality，inthepalace，andinthecave。Theiracquiringineitherhabitsofintemperanceorsloth，dependsontheremissionofotherpursuits，andonthedistasteofthemindtootherengagements。Iftheaffectionsoftheheartbeawake，andthepassionsoflove，admiration，oranger，bekindled，thecostlyfurnitureofthepalace，aswellasthehomelyaccommodationsofthecottage，areneglected:andmen，whenroused，rejecttheirrepose；or，whenwearied，embraceitalikeonthesilkenbed，oronthecouchofstraw。
Wearenot，however，fromhencetoconclude，thatluxury，withallitsconcomitantcircumstances，whicheitherservetofavouritsincrease，orwhich，inthearrangementsofcivilsociety，followitasconsequences，canhavenoeffecttothedisadvantageofnationalmanners。Ifthatrespitefrompublicdangersandtroubleswhichgivesaleisureforthepracticeofcommercialarts，becontinued，orincreased，intoadisuseofnationalefforts；iftheindividual，notcalledtounitewithhiscountry，belefttopursuehisprivateadvantage；wemayfindhimbecomeeffeminate，mercenary，andsensual；notbecausepleasuresandprofitsarebecomemorealluring，butbecausehehasfewercallstoattendtootherobjects；andbecausehehasmoreencouragementtostudyhispersonaladvantages，andpursuehisseparateinterests。
Ifthedisparitiesofrankandfortunewhicharenecessarytothepursuitorenjoymentofluxury，introducefalsegroundsofprecedencyandestimation；if，onthemereconsiderationsofbeingrichorpoor，oneorderofmenare，intheirownapprehension，elevated，anotherdebased；ifonebecriminallyproud，anothermeanlydejected；andeveryrankinitsplace，likethetyrant，whothinksthatnationsaremadeforhimself，bedisposedtoassumeontherightsofmankind:although，uponthecomparison，thehigherordermaybeleastcorrupted；orfromeducation，andasenseofpersonaldignity，havemostgoodqualitiesremaining；yettheonebecomingmercenaryandservile；
theotherimperiousandarrogant；bothregardlessofjustice，andofmerit；thewholemassiscorrupted，andthemannersofasocietychangedfortheworse，inproportionasitsmembersceasetoactonprinciplesofequality，independence，orfreedom。
Uponthisview，andconsideringthemeritsofmenintheabstract，amerechangefromthehabitsofarepublictothoseofamonarchy；romtheloveofequality，tothesenseofasubordinationfoundedonbirth，titles，andfortune，isaspeciesofcorruptiontomankind。Butthisdegreeofcorruptionisstillconsistentwiththesafetyandprosperityofsomenations；itadmitsofavigorouscourage，bywhichtherightsofindividuals，andofkingdoms，maybelongpreserved。
Undertheformofmonarchy。whileyetinitsvigour，superiorfortuneis，indeed，onemarkbywhichthedifferentordersofmenaredistinguished；buttherearesomeotheringredients，withoutwhichwealthisnotadmittedasafoundationofprecedency，andinfavourofwhichitisoftendespised，andlavishedaway。Sucharebirthandtitles，thereputationofcourage，courtlymanners，andacertainelevationofmind。Ifwesuppose，thatthesedistinctionsareforgotten，andnobilityitselfonlytobeknownbythesumptuousretinuewhichmoneyalonemayprocure；andbyalavishexpence，whichthemorerecentfortunescangenerallybestsustain；luxurymustthenbeallowedtocorruptthemonarchicalasmuchastherepublicanstate，andtointroduceafataldissolutionofmanners，underwhichmenofeverycondition，althoughtheyareeagertoacquire，ortodisplaytheirwealth，havenoremainsofrealambition。Theyhaveneithertheelevationofnobles，northefidelityofsubjects；theyhavechangedintoeffeminatevanity，thatsenseofhonourwhichgaverulestothepersonalcourage；andintoaservilebaseness，thatloyalty，whichboundeachinhisplace，tohisimmediatesuperior，andthewholetothethrone。
Nationsaremostexposedtocorruptionfromthisquarter，whenthemechanicalarts，beinggreatlyadvanced，furnishnumberlessarticles，tobeappliedinornamenttotheperson，infurniture，entertainment，orequipage；whensucharticlesastherichalonecanprocureareadmired；andwhenconsideration，precedence，andrank，areaccordinglymadetodependonfortune。
Inamorerudestateofthearts，althoughwealthbeunequallydivided，theopulentcanamassonlythesimplemeansofsubsistence:Theycanonlyfillthegranary，andfurnishthestall；reapfrommoreextendedfields，anddrivetheirherdsoveralargerpasture。Toenjoytheirmagnificence，theymustliveinacroud；andtosecuretheirpossessions，theymustbesurroundedwithfriendsthatespousetheirquarrels。Theirhonours，aswellastheirsafety，consistinthenumberswhoattendthem；andtheirpersonaldistinctionsaretakenfromtheirliberality，andsupposedelevationofmind。Inthismanner，thepossessionofrichesservesonlytomaketheownerassumeacharacterofmagnanimity，tobecometheguardianofnumbers，orthepublicobjectofrespectandaffection。Butwhenthebulkyconstituentsofwealth，andofrusticmagnificence，canbeexchangedforrefinements；andwhentheproduceofthesoilmaybeturnedintoequipage，andmeredecoration；whenthecombinationofmanyisnolongerrequiredforpersonalsafety；themastermaybecomethesoleconsumerofhisownestate:hemayrefertheuseofeverysubjecttohimself；hemayemploythematerialsofgenerositytofeedapersonalvanity，ortoindulgeasicklyandeffeminatefancy，whichhaslearnedtoenumeratethetrappingsofweaknessorfollyamongthenecessariesoflife。
ThePersiansatrape，wearetold，whenhesawtheKingofSpartaattheplaceoftheirconference，stretchedonthegrasswithhissoldiers，blushedattheprovisionhehadmadefortheaccommodationofhisownperson:heorderedthefursandthecarpetstobewithdrawn；hefelthisowninferiority；andrecollected，thathewastotreatwithaman，nottoviewithapageantincostlyattireandmagnificence。
When，amidstcircumstancesthatmakenotrialofthevirtuesortalentsofmen，wehavebeenaccustomedtotheairofsuperiority，whichpeopleoffortunederivefromtheirretinue，weareapttoloseeverysenseofdistinctionarisingfrommerit，orevenfromabilities。Werateourfellow-citizensbythefiguretheyareabletomake；bytheirbuildings，theirdress，theirequipage，andthetrainoftheirfollowers。Allthesecircumstancesmakeapartinourestimateofwhatisexcellent；
andifthemasterhimselfisknowntobeapageantinthemidstofhisfortune，weneverthelesspayourcourttohisstation，andlookupwithanenvious，servile，ordejectedmind，towhatis，initself，scarcelyfittoamusechildren；though，whenitiswornasabadgeofdistinction，itinflamestheambitionofthosewecallthegreat，andstrikesthemultitudewithaweandrespect。
Wejudgeofentirenationsbytheproductionsofafewmechanicalarts，andthinkwearetalkingofmen，whileweareboastingoftheirestates，theirdress，andtheirpalaces。Thesenseinwhichweapplytheterms，great，andnoble，highrank，andhighlife，shew，thatwehave，onsuchoccasions，transferredtheideaofperfectionfromthecharactertotheequipage；andthatexcellenceitselfis，inouresteem，amerepageant，adornedatagreatexpence，bythelaboursofmanyworkmen。
Tothosewhooverlookthesubtiletransitionsoftheimagination，itmightappear，sincewealthcandonomorethanfurnishthemeansofsubsistence，andpurchaseanimalpleasures，thatcovetousness，andvenalityitself，shouldkeeppacewithourfearsofwant，orwithourappetiteforsensualenjoyments；andthatwheretheappetiteissatiated，andthefearofwantisremoved，themindshouldbeateaseonthesubjectoffortune。
Buttheyarenotthemerepleasuresthatrichesprocure，northechoiceofviandswhichcovertheboardofthewealthy，thatinflamethepassionsofthecovetousandthemercenary。Natureiseasilysatisfiedinallherenjoyments。Itisanopinionofeminence，connectedwithfortune；itisasenseofdebasementattendingonpoverty，whichrendersusblindtoeveryadvantage，butthatoftherich；andinsensibletoeverydisgrace，butthatofthepoor。Itisthisunhappyapprehension，thatoccasionallypreparesusforthedesertionofeveryduty，forasubmissiontoeveryindignity，andforthecommissionofeverycrimethatcanbeaccomplishedinsafety。
Aurengzebewasnotmorerenownedforsobrietyinhisprivatestation，andintheconductofasupposeddissimulation，bywhichheaspiredtosovereignpower，thanhecontinuedtobe，evenonthethroneofIndostan。Simple，abstinent，andsevereinhisdiet，andotherpleasures，hestillledthelifeofahermit，andoccupiedhistimewithaseeminglypainfulapplicationtotheaffairsofagreatempire。(3*)Hequittedastationinwhich，ifpleasurehadbeenhisobject，hemighthaveindulgedhissensualitywithoutreserve；hemadehiswaytoasceneofdisquietudeandcare；heaimedatthesummitofhumangreatness，inthepossessionofimperialfortune，notatthegratificationsofanimalappetite，ortheenjoymentofease。Superiortosensualpleasure，aswellastothefeelingsofnature，hedethronedhisfather，andhemurderedhisbrothers，thathemightrollonacarriageincrustedwithdiamondandpearl；thathiselephants，hiscamels，andhishorses，onthemarch，mightformalineextendingmanyleagues；mightpresentaglitteringharnesstothesun；andloadedwithtreasure，ushertotheviewofanabjectandadmiringcroud，thatawfulmajesty，inwhosepresencetheyweretostriketheforeheadontheground，andbeoverwhelmedwiththesenseofhisgreatness，andwiththatoftheirowndebasement。
Asthesearetheobjectswhichpromptthedesireofdominion，andexcitetheambitioustoaimatthemasteryoftheirfellow-creatures；sotheyinspiretheordinaryraceofmenwithasenseofinfirmityandmeanness，thatpreparesthemtosufferindignities，andtobecomethepropertyofpersons，whomtheyconsiderasofarankandanaturesomuchsuperiortotheirown。
Thechainsofperpetualslavery，accordingly，appeartoberivettedintheEast，nolessbythepageantrywhichismadetoaccompanythepossessionofpower，thantheyarebythefearsofthesword，andtheterrorsofamilitaryexecution。IntheWest，aswellastheEast，wearewillingtobowtothesplendidequipage，andstandatanawfuldistancefromthepompofaprincelyestate。Wetoo，maybeterrifiedbythefrowns，orwonbythesmiles，ofthosewhosefavourisrichesandhonour，andwhosedispleasureispovertyandneglect。Wetoomayoverlookthehonoursofthehumansoul，fromanadmirationofthepageantriesthataccompanyfortune。Theprocessionofelephantsharnessedwithgoldmightdazzleintoslaves，thepeoplewhoderivecorruptionandweaknessfromtheeffectoftheirownartsandcontrivances，aswellasthosewhoinheritservilityfromtheirancestors，andareenfeebledbytheirnaturaltemperament，andtheenervatingcharmsoftheirsoil，andtheirclimate。
Itappears，therefore，thatalthoughthemereuseofmaterialswhichconstituteluxury，maybedistinguishedfromactualvice；yetnationsunderahighstateofthecommercialarts，areexposedtocorruption，bytheiradmittingwealth，unsupportedbypersonalelevationandvirtue，asthegreatfoundationofdistinction，andbyhavingtheirattentionturnedonthesideofinterest，astheroadtoconsiderationandhonour。
Withthiseffect，luxurymayservetocorruptdemocraticalstates，byintroducingaspeciesofmonarchicalsubordination，withoutthatsenseofhighbirthandhereditaryhonourswhichrendertheboundariesofrankfixedanddeterminate，andwhichteachmentoactintheirstationswithforceandpropriety。Itmayprovetheoccasionofpoliticalcorruption，eveninmonarchicalgovernments，bydrawingrespecttowardsmerewealth；
bycastingashadeonthelustreofpersonalqualities，orfamily-distinctions；andbyinfectingallordersofmen，withequalvenality，servility，andcowardice。
SectionIV。
ThesamesubjectcontinuedTheincreasingregardwithwhichmenappear，intheprogressofcommercialarts，tostudytheirprofit，orthedelicacywithwhichtheyrefineontheirpleasures；evenindustryitself，orthehabitofapplicationtoatediousemployment，inwhichnohonoursarewon，may，perhaps，beconsideredasindicationsofagrowingattentiontointerest，orofeffeminacy，contractedintheenjoymentofeaseandconveniency，Everysuccessiveart，bywhichtheindividualistaughttoimproveonhisfortune，is，inreality，anadditiontohisprivateengagements，andanewavocationofhismindfromthepublic。
Corruption，however，doesnotarisefromtheabuseofcommercialartsalone；itrequirestheaidofpoliticalsituation；andisnotproducedbytheobjectsthatoccuPyasordidandamercenaryspirit，withouttheaidofcircumstancesthatenablementoindulgeinsafetyanymeandispositiontheyhaveacquired。
Providencehasfittedmankindforthehigherengagementswhichtheyaresometimesobligedtofulfil；anditisinthemidstofsuchengagementsthattheyaremostlikelytoacquireortopreservetheirvirtues。Thehabitsofavigorousmindareformedincontendingwithdifficulties，notinenjoyingthereposeofapacificstation；penetrationandwisdomarethefruitsofexperience，notthelessonsofretirementandleisure；
ardourandgenerosityarethequalitiesofamindrousedandanimatedintheconductofscenesthatengagetheheart，notthegiftsofrejectionorknowledge。Themereintermissionofnationalandpoliticaleffortsis，notwithstanding，sometimesmistakenforpublicgood；andthereisnomistakemorelikelytofosterthevices，ortoflattertheweakness，offeebleandinterestedmen。
Iftheordinaryartsofpolicy，orrather，ifagrowingindifferencetoobjectsofapublicnature，shouldprevail，and，underanyfreeconstitution，putanendtothosedisputesofparty，andsilencethatnoiseofdissension，whichgenerallyaccompanytheexerciseoffreedom，wemayventuretoprognosticatecorruptiontothenationalmanners，aswellasremissnesstothenationalspirit。Theperiodiscome，when，noengagementremainingonthepartofthepublic，privateinterest，andanimalpleasure，becomethesovereignobjectsofcare。Whenmen，beingrelievedfromthepressureofgreatoccasions，bestowtheirattentionontrifles；andhavingcarriedwhattheyarepleasedtocallsensibilityanddelicacy，onthesubjectofeaseormolestation，asfarasrealweaknessorfollycango，haverecoursetoaffectation，inordertoenhancethepretendeddemands，andaccumulatetheanxieties，ofasicklyfancy，andenfeebledmind。
Inthiscondition，mankindgenerallyflattertheirownimbecilityunderthenameofpoliteness。Theyarepersuaded，thatthecelebratedardour，generosity，andfortitude，offormerages，borderedonfrenzy，orwerethemereeffectsofnecessity，onmenwhohadnotthemeansofenjoyingtheirease，ortheirpleasure。
Theycongratulatethemselvesonhavingescapedthestormwhichrequiredtheexerciseofsucharduousvirtues；andwiththatvanitywhichaccompaniesthehumanraceintheirmeanestcondition，theyboastofasceneofaffectation，oflanguor，oroffolly，asthestandardofhumanfelicity，andasfurnishingtheproperestexerciseofarationalnature。
Itisnoneoftheleastmenacingsymptomsofanagepronetodegeneracy，thatthemindsofmenbecomeperplexedinthediscernmentofmerit，asmuchasthespiritbecomesenfeebledinconduct，andtheheartmisledinthechoiceofitsobjects。Thecareofmerefortuneissupposedtoconstitutewisdom；retirementfrompublicaffairs，andrealindifferencetomankind，receivetheapplausesofmoderationandvirtue。
Greatfortitude，andelevationofmind，havenotalways，indeed，beenemployedintheattainmentofvaluableends；buttheyarealwaysrespectable，andtheyarealwaysnecessarywhenwewouldactforthegoodofmankind，inanyofthemorearduousstationsoflife。While，therefore，weblametheirmisapplication，weshouldbewareofdepreciatingtheirvalue。Menofasevereandsententiousmoralityhavenotalwayssufficientlyobservedthiscaution；norhavetheybeendulyawareofthecorruptionstheyflattered，bythesatiretheyemployedagainstwhatisaspiringandprominentinthecharacterofthehumansoul。
Itmighthavebeenexpected，thatinanageofhopelessdebasement，(4*)thetalentsofDemosthenesandTully，eventheill-governedmagnanimityofaMacedonian，orthedaringenterpriseofaCarthaginianleader，mighthaveescapedtheacrimonyofasatirist，whohadsomanyobjectsofcorrectioninhisview，andwhopossessedtheartsofdeclamationinsohighadegree:
I，demens，etsaevosperAlpes，Utpuerisplaceas，etdeclamatiofias，ispartoftheilliberalcensurewhichisthrownbythispoetonthepersonandactionofaleader，who，byhiscourageandconduct，intheveryservicetowhichthesatirereferred，hadwellnighsavedhiscountryfromtheruinwithwhichitwasatlastoverwhelmed。
Heroesaremuchthesame，thepoint’sagreed，FromMacedonia’smadmantotheSwede，isadistich，inwhichanotherpoetofbeautifultalents，hasattemptedtodepreciateaname，towhich，probably，fewofhisreadersarefoundtoaspire。
Ifmenmustgowrong，thereisachoiceoftheirveryerrors，aswellasoftheirvirtues。Ambition，theloveofpersonaleminence，andthedesireoffame，althoughtheysometimesleadtothecommissionofcrimes，yetalwaysengagemeninpursuitsthatrequiretobesupportedbysomeofthegreatestqualitiesofthehumansoul；andifeminenceistheprincipalobjectofpursuit，thereis，atleast，aprobability，thatthosequalitiesmaybestudiedonwhicharealelevationofmindisraised。Butwhenpublicalarmshaveceased，andcontemptofgloryisrecommendedasanarticleofwisdom，thesordidhabits，andmercenarydispositions，towhich，underageneralindifferencetonationalobjects，themembersofapolishedorcommercialstateareexposed，mustproveatoncethemosteffectualsuppressionofeveryliberalsentiment，andthemostfatalreverseofallthoseprinciplesfromwhichcommunitiesderivetheirhopesofpreservation，andtheirstrength。
