Somehavingthought，thattheunequaldistributionofwealthisunjust，requiredanewdivisionofproperty，asthefoundationoffreedom。Thisschemeissuitedtodemocraticalgovernment；andinsuchonlyithasbeenadmittedwithanydegreeofeffect。
Newsettlements，likethatofthepeopleofIsrael，andsingularestablishments，likethoseofSpartaandCrete，havefurnishedexamplesofitsactualexecution；butinmostotherstates，eventhedemocraticalspiritcouldattainnomorethantoprolongthestruggleforAgrarianlaws；toprocure，onoccasion，theexpungingofdebts；andtokeepthepeopleinmind，underallthedistinctionsoffortune，thattheystillhadaclaimtoequality。
ThecitizenatRome，atAthens，andinmanyrepublics，contendedforhimself，andhisorder。TheAgrarianlawwasmovedanddebatedforages:itservedtoawakenthemind；itnourishedthespiritofequality，andfurnishedafieldonwhichtoexertitsforce；butwasneverestablishedwithanyofitsotherandmoreformaleffects。
Manyoftheestablishmentswhichservetodefendtheweakfromoppression，contribute，bysecuringthepossessionofproperty，tofavouritsunequaldivision，andtoincreasetheascendantofthosefromwhomtheabusesofpowermaybefeared。ThoseabuseswerefeltveryearlybothatAthensandRome。(19*)
Ithasbeenproposedtopreventtheexcessiveaccumulationofwealthinparticularhands，bylimitingtheincreaseofprivatefortunes，byprohibitingentails，andbywith-holdingtherightofprimogenitureinthesuccessionofheirs。Ithasbeenproposedtopreventtheruinofmoderateestates，andtorestraintheuse，andconsequentlythedesire，ofgreatones，bysumptuarylaws。
Thesedifferentmethodsaremoreorlessconsistentwiththeinterestsofcommerce，andmaybeadopted，indifferentdegrees，byapeoplewhosenationalobjectiswealth:andtheyhavetheirdegreeofeffect，byinspiringmoderation，orasenseofequality，andbystiflingthepassionsbywhichmankindarepromptedtomutualwrongs。
Itappearstobe，inaparticularmanner，theobjectofsumptuarylaws，andoftheequaldivisionofwealth，topreventthegratificationofvanity，tochecktheostentationofsuperiorfortune，and，bythismeans，toweakenthedesireofriches，andtopreserveinthebreastofthecitizen，thatmoderationandequitywhichoughttoregulatehisconduct。
Thisendisneverperfectlyattainedinanystatewheretheunequaldivisionofpropertyisadmitted，andwherefortuneisallowedtobestowdistinctionandrank。Itisindeeddifficult，byanymethodswhatever，toshutupthissourceofcorruption。Ofallthenationswhosehistoryisknownwithcertainty，thedesignitself，andthemannerofexecutingit，appeartohavebeenunderstoodinSpartaalone。
Therepropertywasindeedacknowledgedbylaw；butinconsequenceofcertainregulationsandpractices，themosteffectual，itseems，thatmankindhavehithertofoundout，themannersthatprevailamongsimplenationsbeforetheestablishmentofproperty，wereinsomemeasurepreserved；(20*)
thepassionforricheswas，duringmanyages，suppressed；andthecitizenwasmadetoconsiderhimselfasthepropertyofhiscountry，notastheownerofaprivateestate。
Itwasheldignominiouseithertobuyortosellthepatrimonyofacitizen。Slaveswere，ineveryfamily，intrustedwiththecareofitseffects，andfreemenwerestrangerstolucrativearts；justicewasestablishedonacontemptoftheordinaryallurementtocrimes；andthepreservativesofcivillibertyappliedbythestate，werethedispositionsthatweremadetoprevailintheheartsofitsmembers。
Theindividualwasrelievedfromeverysolicitudethatcouldariseontheheadofhisfortune；hewaseducated，andhewasemployedforlifeintheserviceofthepublic；hewasfedataplaceofcommonresort，towhichhecouldcarrynodistinctionbutthatofhistalentsandhisvirtues；hischildrenwerethwardsandthepupilsofthestate；hehimselfwastaughttobeaparent，andadirectortotheyouthofhiscountry，nottheanxiousfatherofaseparatefamily。
Thispeople，wearetold，bestowedsomecareinadorningtheirpersons，andwereknownfromafarbytheredorthepurpletheywore；butcouldnotmaketheirequipage，theirbuildings，ortheirfurniture，asubjectoffancy，orofwhatwecalltaste。
Thecarpenterandthehouse-builderwererestrictedtotheuseoftheaxeandthesaw:theirworkmanshipmusthavebeensimple，andprobably，inrespecttoitsform，continuedforagesthesame。
Theingenuityoftheartistwasemployedincultivatinghisownnature，notinadorningthehabitationsofhisfellow-citizens。
Onthisplan，theyhadsenators，magistrates，leadersofarmies，andministersofstate；butnomenoffortune。LiketheheroesofHomer，theydistributedhonoursbythemeasureofthecupandtheplatter。Acitizen，who，inhispoliticalcapacity，wasthearbiterofGreece，thoughthimselfhonouredbyreceivingadoubleportionofplainentertainmentatsupper。Hewasactive，penetrating，brave，disinterested，andgenerous；buthisestate，histable，andhisfurniture，might，inouresteem，havemarredthelustreofallhisvirtues。Neighbouringnations，however，appliedforcommanderstothisnurseryofstatesmenandwarriors，asweapplyforthepractitionersofeveryarttothecountriesinwhichtheyexcel；forcookstoFrance，andformusicianstoItaly。
Afterall，weare，perhaps，notsufficientlyinstructedinthenatureoftheSpartanlawsandinstitutions，tounderstandinwhatmanneralltheendsofthissingularstatewereobtained；
buttheadmirationpaidtoitspeople，andtheconstantreferenceofcontemporaryhistorianstotheiravowedsuperiority，willnotallowustoquestionthefacts。’WhenIobserved，’saysXenophon，’thatthisnation，thoughnotthemostpopulous，wasthemostpowerfulstateofGreece，Iwasseizedwithwonder，andwithanearnestdesiretoknowbywhatartsitattaineditspre-eminence；
butwhenIcametotheknowledgeofitsinstitutions，mywonderceased——Asonemanexcelsanother，andashewhoisatpainstocultivatehismind，mustsurpassthepersonwhoneglectsit；
sotheSpartansshouldexceleverynation，beingtheonlystateinwhichvirtueisstudiedastheobjectofgovernment。’
Thesubjectsofproperty，consideredwithaviewtosubsistence，oreventoenjoyment，havelittleeffectincorruptingmankind，orinawakeningthespiritofcompetitionandofjealousy；butconsideredwithaviewtodistinctionandhonour，wherefortuneconstitutesrank，theyexcitethemostvehementpassions，andabsorballthesentimentsofthehumansoul:theyreconcileavariceandmeannesswithambitionandvanity；andleadmenthroughthepracticeofsordidandmercenaryartstothepossessionofasupposedelevationanddignity。
Wherethissourceofcorruption，onthecontrary，iseffectuallystopped，thecitizenisdutiful，andthemagistrateupright；anyformofgovernmentmaybewiselyadministered；
placesoftrustarelikelytobewellsupplied；andbywhateverruleofficeandpowerarebestowed，itislikelythatallthecapacityandforcethatsubsistsinthestatewillcometobeemployedinitsservice:foronthissupposition，experienceandabilitiesaretheonlyguidesandtheonlytitlestopublicconfidence；andifcitizensberangedintoseparateclasses，theybecomemutualchecksbythedifferenceoftheiropinions，notbytheoppositionoftheirinteresteddesigns。
WemayeasilyaccountforthecensuresbestowedonthegovernmentofSparta，bythosewhoconsidereditmerelyonthesideofitsforms。Itwasnotcalculatedtopreventthepracticeofcrimes，bybalancingagainsteachothertheselfishandpartialdispositionsofmen；buttoinspirethevirtuesofthesoul，toprocureinnocencebytheabsenceofcriminalinclinations，andtoderiveitsinternalpeacefromtheindifferenceofitsmemberstotheordinarymotivesofstrifeanddisorder。Itweretriflingtoseekforitsanalogytoanyotherconstitutionofstate，inwhichitsprincipalcharacteristicanddistinguishingfeatureisnottobefound。Thecollegiatesovereignty，thesenate，andtheephori，hadtheircounterpartsinotherrepublics，andaresemblancehasbeenfoundinparticulartothegovernmentofCarthage:(21*)butwhataffinityofconsequencecanbefoundbetweenastatewhosesoleobjectwasvirtue，andanotherwhoseprincipalobjectwaswealth；betweenapeoplewhoseassociatedkings，beinglodgedinthesamecottage，hadnofortunebuttheirdailyfood；andacommercialrepublic，inwhichaproperestatewasrequiredasanecessaryqualificationforthehigherofficesofstate？
Otherpettycommonwealthsexpelledkings，whentheybecamejealousoftheirdesigns，orafterhavingexperiencedtheirtyranny；herethehereditarysuccessionofkingswaspreserved:
otherstateswereafraidoftheintriguesandcabalsoftheirmembersincompetitionfordignities；heresolicitationwasrequiredastheonlyconditionuponwhichaplaceinthesenatewasobtained。Asupremeinquisitorialpowerwas，inthepersonsoftheephori，safelycommittedtoafewmen，whoweredrawnbylot，andwithoutdistinction，fromeveryorderofthepeople:andifacontrasttothis，aswellastomanyotherarticlesoftheSpartanpolicy，berequired，itmaybefoundinthegeneralhistoryofmankind。
ButSparta，undereverysupposederrorofitsform，prosperedforages，bytheintegrityofitsmanners，andbythecharacterofitscitizens。Whenthatintegritywasbroken，thispeopledidnotlanguishintheweaknessofnationssunkineffeminacy。Theyfellintothestreambywhichotherstateshadbeencarriedinthetorrentofviolentpassions，andintheoutrageofbarbaroustimes。Theyranthecareerofothernations，afterthatofancientSpartawasfinished:theybuiltwalls，andbegantoimprovetheirpossessions，aftertheyceasedtoimprovetheirpeople；andonthisnewplan，intheirstruggleforpoliticallife，theysurvivedthesystemofstatesthatperishedundertheMacedoniandominion:theylivedtoactwithanotherwhicharoseintheAchaeanleague；andwerethelastcommunityofGreecethatbecameavillageintheempireofRome。
Ifitshouldbethoughtwehavedwelttoolongonthehistoryofthissingularpeople，itmayberemembered，inexcuse，thattheyalone，inthelanguageofXenophon，madevirtueanobjectofstate。
Wemustbecontentedtoderiveourfreedomfromadifferentsource；toexpectjusticefromthelimitswhicharesettothepowersofthemagistrate，andtorelyforprotectiononthelawswhicharemadetosecuretheestate，andthepersonofthesubject。Weliveinsocieties，wheremenmustberich，inordertobegreat；wherepleasureitselfisoftenpursuedfromvanity；
wherethedesireofasupposedhappinessservestoinflametheworstofpassions，andisitselfthefoundationofmisery；wherepublicjustice，likefettersappliedtothebody，may，withoutinspiringthesentimentsofcandourandequity，preventtheactualcommissionofcrimes。
Mankindcomeunderthisdescriptionthemomenttheyareseizedwiththeirpassionsforrichesandpower。Buttheirdescriptionineveryinstanceismixed:inthebestthereisanalloyofevil；intheworstamixtureofgood。Withoutanyestablishmentstopreservetheirmanners，besidespenallaws，andtherestraintsofpolice，theyderive，frominstinctivefeelings，aloveofintegrityandcandour，and，fromtheverycontagionofsocietyitself，anesteemforwhatishonourableandpraise-worthy。Theyderive，fromtheirunion，andjointoppositiontoforeignenemies，azealfortheirowncommunity，andcouragetomaintainitsrights。Ifthefrequentneglectofvirtueasapoliticalobject，tendtodiscredittheunderstandingsofmen，itslustre，anditsfrequency，asaspontaneousoffspringoftheheart，willrestorethehonoursofournature。Ineverycasualandmixedstateofthenationalmanners，thesafetyofeveryindividual，andhispoliticalconsequence，dependsmuchonhimself，butmoreonthepartytowhichheisjoined。Forthisreason，allwhofeelacommoninterest，areapttouniteinparties；and，asfarasthatinterestrequires，mutuallysupporteachother。
Wherethecitizensofanyfreecommunityareofdifferentorders，eachorderhasapeculiarsetofclaimsandpretensions:
relativelytotheothermembersofthestate，itisaparty；
relativelytothedifferencesofinterestamongitsownmembers，itmayadmitofnumberlesssubdivisions。Butineverystatetherearetwointerestsveryreadilyapprehended；thatofaprinceandhisadherents，thatofanobility，orofanytemporaryfaction，opposedtothepeople。
Wherethesovereignpowerisreservedbythecollectivebody，itappearsunnecessarytothinkofadditionalestablishmentsforsecuringtherightsofthecitizen，Butitisdifficult，ifnotimpossible，forthecollectivebodytoexercisethispowerinamannerthatsupersedesthenecessityofeveryotherpoliticalcaution。
Ifpopularassembliesassumeeveryfunctionofgovernment；
andif，inthesametumultuousmannerinwhichtheycan，withgreatpropriety，expresstheirfeelings，thesenseoftheirrights，andtheiranimositytoforeignordomesticenemies，theypretendtodeliberateonpointsofnationalconduct，ortodecidequestionsofequityandjustice；thepublicisexposedtomanifoldinconveniencies；andpopulargovernmentswould，ofallothers，bethemostsubjecttoerrorsinadministration，andtoweaknessintheexecutionofpublicmeasures。
Toavoidthesedisadvantages，thepeoplearealwayscontentedtodelegatepartoftheirpowers。Theyestablishasenatetodebate，andtoprepare，ifnottodetermine，questionsthatarebroughttothecollectivebodyforafinalresolution。Theycommittheexecutivepowertosomecouncilofthissort，ortoamagistratewhopresidesintheirmeetings。Undertheuseofthisnecessaryandcommonexpedient，evenwhiledemocraticalformsaremostcarefullyguarded，thereisonepartyofthefew，anotherofthemany。Oneattacks，theotherdefends；andtheyarebothreadytoassumeintheirturns。Butthough，inreality，agreatdangertolibertyarisesonthepartofthepeoplethemselves，who，intimesofcorruption，areeasilymadetheinstrumentsofusurpationandtyranny；yet，intheordinaryaspectofgovernment，theexecutivecarriesanairofsuperiority，andtherightsofthepeopleseemalwaysexposedtoincroachment。
ThoughonthedaythattheRomanpeopleassembledintheirtribes，thesenatorsmixedwiththecroud，andtheconsulwasnomorethantheservantofthemultitude；yet，whenthisawfulmeetingwasdissolved，thesenatorsmettoprescribebusinessfortheirsovereign，andtheconsulwentarmedwiththeaxeandtherods，toteacheveryRoman，inhisseparatecapacity，thesubmissionwhichheowedtothestate。
Thus，evenwherethecollectivebodyissovereign，theyareassembledonlyoccasionally:andthoughonsuchoccasionstheydetermineeveryquestionrelativetotheirrightsandtheirinterestsasapeople，andcanasserttheirfreedomwithirresistibleforce；yettheydonotthinkthemselves，noraretheyinreality，safe，withoutamoreconstantandmoreuniformpoweroperatingintheirfavour。
Themultitudeiseverywherestrong；butrequires，forthesafetyofitsmembers，whenseparateaswellaswhenassembled，aheadtodirectandtoemployitsstrength。Forthispurpose，theephori，wearetold，wereestablishedatSparta，thecouncilofahundredatCarthage，andthetribunesatRome。Soprepared，thepopularpartyhas，inmanyinstances，beenabletocopewithitsadversaries，andhaseventrampledonthepowers，whetheraristocraticalormonarchical，withwhichitwouldhavebeenotherwiseunequallymatched。Thestate，insuchcases，commonlysufferedbythedelays，interruptions，andconfusions，whichpopularleaders，fromprivateenvy，oraprevailingjealousyofthegreat，seldomfailedtocreateintheproceedingsofgovernment。
Wherethepeople，asinsomelargercommunities，haveonlyashareinthelegislature，theycannotoverwhelmthecollateralpowers，whohavinglikewiseashare，areinconditiontodefendthemselves:wheretheyactonlybytheirrepresentatives，theirforcemaybeuniformlyemployed。Andtheymaymakepartinaconstitutionofgovernmentmorelastingthananyofthoseinwhichthepeoplepossessingorpretendingtotheentirelegislature，are，whenassembled，thetyrants，and，whendispersed，theslaves，ofadistemperedstate。Ingovernmentsproperlymixed，thepopularinterest，findingacounterpoiseinthatoftheprinceorofthenobles，abalanceisactuallyestablishedbetweenthem，inwhichthepublicfreedomandthepublicorderaremadetoconsist。
Fromsomesuchcasualarrangementofdifferentinterests，allthevarietiesofmixedgovernmentproceed；andonthedegreeofconsiderationwhicheveryseparateinterestcanprocuretoitself，dependstheequityofthelawstheyenact，andthenecessitytheyareabletoimpose，ofadheringstrictlytothetermsoflawinitsexecution。Statesareaccordinglyunequallyqualifiedtoconductthebusinessoflegislation，andunequallyfortunateinthecompleteness，andregularobservance，oftheircivilcode。
Indemocraticalestablishments，citizens，feelingthemselvespossessedofthesovereignty，arenotequallyanxious，withthesubjectofothergovernments，tohavetheirrightsexplained，orsecured，byactualstatute。Theytrusttopersonalvigour，tothesupportofparty，andtothesenseofthepublic。
Ifthecollectivebodyperformtheofficeofjudge，aswellasoflegislator，theyseldomthinkofdevisingrulesfortheirowndirection，andarefoundmoreseldomtofollowanydeterminaterule，afteritismade。Theydispense，atonetime，withwhattheyenactedatanother；andintheirjudicative，perhapsevenmorethanintheirlegislative，capacity，areguidedbypassionsandpartialitiesthatarisefromcircumstancesofthecasebeforethem。
Butunderthesimplestgovernmentsofadifferentsort，whetheraristocracyormonarchy，thereisanecessityforlaw，andthereareavarietyofintereststobeadjustedinframingeverystatute。Thesovereignwishestogivestabilityandordertoadministration，byexpressandpromulgatedrules。Thesubjectwishestoknowtheconditionsandlimitsofhisduty。Heacquiesces，orherevolts，accordingasthetermsonwhichheismadetolivewiththesovereign，orwithhisfellow-subjects，are，orarenot，consistentwiththesenseofhisrights。
Neitherthemonarch，northecouncilofnobles，whereeitherispossessedofthesovereignty，canpretendtogovern，ortojudgeatdiscretion。Nomagistrate，whethertemporaryorhereditary，canwithsafetyneglectthatreputationforjusticeandequity，fromwhichhisauthority，andtherespectthatispaidtohisperson，areinagreatmeasurederived。Nations，however，havebeenfortunateinthetenor，andintheexecutionoftheirlaws，inproportionastheyhaveadmittedeveryorderofthepeople，byrepresentationorotherwise，toanactualshareofthelegislature。Underestablishmentsofthissort，lawisliterallyatreaty，towhichthepattiesconcernedhaveagreed，andhavegiventheiropinioninsettlingitsterms。Theintereststobeaffectedbyalaw，arelikewiseconsultedinmakingit。
Everyclasspropoundsanobjection，suggestsanadditionoranamendmentofitsown。Theyproceedtoadjust，bystature，everysubjectofcontroversy:andwhiletheycontinuetoenjoytheirfreedom，theycontinuetomultiplylaws，andtoaccumulatevolumes，asiftheycouldremoveeverypossiblegroundofdispute，andweresecureoftheirrights，merelybyhavingputtheminwriting。
RomeandEngland，undertheirmixedgovernments，theoneincliningtodemocracy，theothertomonarchy，haveprovedthegreatlegislatorsamongnations。Thefirsthasleftthefoundation，andgreatpartofthesuperstructureofitscivilcode，tothecontinentofEurope:theother，initsisland，hascarriedtheauthorityandgovernmentoflawtoapointofperfection，whichtheyneverbeforeattainedinthehistoryofmankind。
Undersuchfavourableestablishments，knowncustoms，thepracticeanddecisionsofcourts，aswellaspositivestatutes，acquiretheauthorityoflaws；andeveryproceedingisconductedbysomefixedanddeterminaterule。Thebestandmosteffectualprecautionsaretakenfortheimpartialapplicationofrulestoparticularcases；anditisremarkable，that，inthetwoexampleswehavementioned，asurprisingcoincidenceisfoundinthesingularmethodsoftheirjurisdiction。Thepeopleinbothreservedinamannertheofficeofjudgementtothemselves，andbroughtthedecisionofcivilrights，orofcriminalquestions，tothetribunalofpeers，who，injudgingoftheirfellow-citizens，prescribedaconditionoflifeforthemselves。
Itisnotinmerelaws，afterall，thatwearetolookforthesecuritiestojustice，butinthepowersbywhichthoselawshavebeenobtained，andwithoutwhoseconstantsupporttheymustfalltodisuse。Statutesservetorecordtherightsofapeople，andspeaktheintentionofpartiestodefendwhattheletterofthelawhasexpressed:butwithoutthevigourtomaintainwhatisacknowledgedasaright，themererecord，orthefeebleintention，isoflittleavail。
Apopulacerousedbyoppression，oranorderofmenpossessedofatemporaryadvantage，haveobtainedmanycharters，concessions，andstipulations，infavouroftheirclaims；butwherenoadequatepreparationwasmadetopreservethem，thewrittenarticleswereoftenforgotten，togetherwiththeoccasiononwhichtheywereframed。
ThehistoryofEngland，andofeveryfreecountry，aboundswiththeexampleofstatutesenactedwhenthepeopleortheirrepresentativesassembled，butneverexecutedwhenthecrownortheexecutivewaslefttoitself。Themostequitablelawsonpaperareconsistentwiththeutmostdespotisminadministration，EventheformoftrialbyjuriesinEnglandhaditsauthorityinlaw，whiletheproceedingsofcourtswerearbitraryandoppressive。
Wemustadmire，asthekey-stoneofcivilliberty，thestatutewhichforcesthesecretsofeveryprisontoberevealed，thecauseofeverycommitmenttobedeclared，andthepersonoftheaccusedtobeproduced，thathemayclaimhisenlargement，orhistrial，withinalimitedtime。Nowiserformwaseveropposedtotheabusesofpower。ButitrequiresafabricnolessthanthewholepoliticalconstitutionofGreatBritain，aspiritnolessthantherefractoryandturbulentzealofthisfortunatepeople，tosecureitseffects。
Ifeventhesafetyoftheperson，andthetenureofproperty，whichmaybesowelldefinedinthewordsofastatute，depend，fortheirpreservation，onthevigourandjealousyofafreepeople，andonthedegreeofconsiderationwhicheveryorderofthestatemaintainsforitself；itisstillmoreevident，thatwhatwehavecalledthepoliticalfreedom，ortherightoftheindividualtoactinhisstationforhimselfandthepublic，cannotbemadetorestonanyotherfoundation。Theestatemaybesaved，andthepersonreleased，bytheformsofacivilprocedure；buttherightsofthemindcannotbesustainedbyanyotherforcebutitsown。
SectionVII。
OftheHistoryofArtsWehavealreadyobserved，thatartisnaturaltoman；andthattheskillheacquiresaftermanyagesofpractice，isonlytheimprovementofatalenthepossessedatthefirst。VitruviusfindstherudimentsofarchitectureintheformofaScythiancottage。Thearmourermayfindthefirstproductionsofhiscallingintheslingandthebow；andtheship-wrightofhisinthecanoeofthesavage。Eventhehistorianandthepoetmayfindtheoriginalessaysoftheirartsinthetale，andthesong，whichcelebratethewars，theloves，andtheadventuresofmenintheirrudestcondition。
Destinedtocultivatehisownnature，ortomendhissituation，manfindsacontinuedsubjectofattention，ingenuity，andlabour。Evenwherehedoesnotproposeanypersonalimprovement，hisfacultiesarestrengthenedbythoseveryexercisesinwhichheseemstoforgethimself:hisreasonandhisaffectionsarethusprofitablyengagedintheaffairsofsociety；
hisinventionandhisskillareexercisedinprocuringhisaccommodationsandhisfood；hisparticularpursuitsareprescribedtohimbycircumstancesoftheageandofthecountryinwhichhelives:inonesituationheisoccupiedwithwarsandpoliticaldeliberations；inanother，withthecareofhisinterest，ofhispersonalease，orconveniency，Hesuitshismeanstotheendshehasinview；and，bymultiplyingcontrivances，proceeds，bydegrees，totheperfectionofhisarts。Ineverystepofhisprogress，ifhisskillbeincreased，hisdesiremustlikewisehavetimetoextend:anditwouldbeasvaintosuggestacontrivanceofwhichheslightedtheuse，asitwouldbetotellhimofblessingswhichhecouldnotcommand。
Agesaregenerallysupposedtohaveborrowedfromthosewhowentbeforethem，andnationstohavederivedtheirportionoflearningorofartfromabroad。TheRomansarethoughttohavelearnedfromtheGreeks，andthemodernsofEuropefromboth。Inthisimaginationwefrequentlyproceedsofarastoadmitofnothingoriginalinthepracticeormannersofanypeople。TheGreekwasacopyoftheEgyptian，andeventheEgyptianwasanimitator，thoughwehavelostsightofthemodelonwhichhewasformed。
Itisknown，thatmenimprovebyexampleandintercourse；butinthecaseofnations，whosemembersexciteanddirecteachother，whyseekfromabroadtheoriginofarts，ofwhicheverysociety，havingtheprinciplesinitself，onlyrequiresafavourableoccasiontobringthemtolight？Whensuchoccasionpresentsitselftoanypeople，theygenerallyseizeit；andwhileitcontinues，theyimprovetheinventionstowhichitgaveriseamongthemselves，ortheywillinglycopyfromothers:buttheyneveremploytheirowninvention，norlookabroad，forinstructiononsubjectsthatdonotlieinthewayoftheircommonpursuits；theyneveradoptarefinementofwhichtheyhavenotdiscoveredtheuse。
Inventions，wefrequentlyobserve，areaccidental；butitisprobable，thatanaccidentwhichescapestheartistinoneage，maybeseizedbyonewhosucceedshim，andwhoisbetterapprisedofitsuse。Wherecircumstancesarefavourable，andwhereapeopleisintentontheobjectsofanyart，everyinventionispreserved，bybeingbroughtintogeneralpractice；everymodelisstudied，andeveryaccidentisturnedtoaccount。Ifnationsactuallyborrowfromtheirneighbours，theyprobablyborrowonlywhattheyarenearlyinaconditiontohaveinventedthemselves。
Anysingularpracticeofonecountry，therefore，isseldomtransferredtoanother，tillthewaybepreparedbytheintroductionofsimilarcircumstances。Henceourfrequentcomplaintsofthedullnessorobstinacyofmankind，andofthedilatorycommunicationofarts，fromoneplacetoanother。WhiletheRomansadoptedtheartsofGreece，theThraciansandIllyrianscontinuedtobeholdthemwithindifference。Thoseartswere，duringoneperiod，confinedtotheGreekcolonies，andduringanother，totheRoman。Evenwheretheywerespreadbyavisibleintercourse，theywerestillreceivedbyindependentnationswiththeslownessofinvention。TheymadeaprogressnotmorerapidatRomethantheyhaddoneatAthens；andtheypassedtotheextremitiesoftheRomanempire，onlyincompanywithnewcolonies，andjoinedtoItalianpolicy。
Themodernrace，whocameabroadtothepossessionofcultivatedprovinces，retainedtheartstheyhadpractisedathome:thenewmasterhuntedtheboar，orpasturedhisherds，wherehemighthaveraisedaplentifulharvest:hebuiltacottageintheviewofapalace:heburied，inonecommonruin，theedifices，sculptures，paintings，andlibraries，oftheformerinhabitant:hemadeasettlementuponaplanofhisown，andopenedanewthesourceofinventions，withoutperceivingfromadistancetowhatlengththeirprogressmightleadhisposterity。
Thecottageofthepresentrace，likethatoftheformer，bydegreesenlargeditsdimensions；publicbuildingsacquiredamagnificenceinanewtaste。Eventhistastecame，inacourseofages，tobeexploded，andthepeopleofEuroperecurredtothemodelswhichtheirfathersdestroyed，andweptovertheruinswhichtheycouldnotrestore。
Theliteraryremainsofantiquitywerestudiedandimitated，aftertheoriginalgeniusofmodernnationshadbrokeforth:therudeeffortsofpoetryinItalyandProvence，resembledthoseoftheGreeksandtheancientRomans。Howfarthemeritofourworksmight，withouttheaidoftheirmodels，haverisenbysuccessiveimprovements，orwhetherwehavegainedmorebyimitationthanwehavelostbyquittingournativesystemofthinking，andourveinoffable，mustbelefttoconjecture。Wearecertainlyindebtedtothemforthematerials，aswellastheform，ofmanyofourcompositions；andwithouttheirexample，thestrainofourliterature，togetherwiththatofourmannersandpolicy，wouldhavebeendifferentfromwhattheyatpresentare。Thismuchhowevermaybesaidwithassurance，thatalthoughtheRomanandthemodernliteraturesavouralikeoftheGreekoriginal，yetmankindineitherinstancewouldnothavedrankofthisfountain，unlesstheyhadbeenhasteningtoopenspringsoftheirown。
Sentimentandfancy，theuseofthehandorthehead，arenotinventionsofparticularmen；andtheflourishingofartsthatdependonthem，are，inthecaseofanypeople，aproofratherofpoliticalfelicityathome，thanofanyinstructionreceivedfromabroad，orofanynaturalsuperiorityinpointofindustryortalents，Whentheattentionsofmenareturnedtowardparticularsubjects，whentheacquisitionsofoneageareleftentiretothenext，wheneveryindividualisprotectedinhisplace，andlefttopursuethesuggestionofhiswants，devicesaccumulate；anditisdifficulttofindtheoriginalofanyart。Thestepswhichleadtoperfectionaremany；andweareatalossonwhomtobestowthegreatestshareofourpraise；onthefirstoronthelastwhomayhaveboreapartintheprogress。
SectionVIII
OftheHistoryofLiteratureIfwemayrelyonthegeneralobservationscontainedinthelastsection，theliterary，aswellasmechanicalarts，beinganaturalproduceofthehumanmind，willrisespontaneouslywhere-evermenarehappilyplaced；andincertainnationsitisnotmorenecessarytolookabroadfortheoriginofliterature，thanitisforthesuggestionofanyofthepleasuresorexercisesinwhichmankind，underastateofprosperityandfreedom，aresufficientlyinclinedtoindulgethemselves。
Weareapttoconsiderartsasforeignandadventitioustothenatureofman:butthereisnoartthatdidnotfinditsoccasioninhumanlife，andthatwasnot，insomeoneorotherofthesituationsinwhichourspeciesisfound，suggestedasameansfortheattainmentofsomeusefulend。Themechanicandcommercialartstooktheirrisefromtheloveofproperty，andwereencouragedbytheprospectsofsafetyandofgain:theliteraryandliberalartstooktheirrisefromtheunderstanding，thefancy，andtheheart。Theyaremereexercisesofthemindinsearchofitspeculiarpleasuresandoccupations；andarepromotedbycircumstancesthatsufferthemindtoenjoyitself。
Menareequallyengagedbythepast，thepresent，andthefuture，andarepreparedforeveryoccupationthatgivesscopetotheirpowers。Productionstherefore，whetherofnarration，fiction，orreasoning，thattendtoemploytheimagination，ormovetheheart，continueforagesasubjectofattention，andasourceofdelight。Thememoryofhumantransactionsbeingpreservedintraditionorwriting，isthenaturalgratificationofapassionthatconsistsofcuriosity，admiration，andtheloveofamusement。
Beforemanybooksarewritten，andbeforescienceisgreatlyadvanced，theproductionsofmeregeniusaresometimescomplete:
theperformerrequiresnottheaidoflearningwherehisdescriptionorstoryrelatestonearandcontiguousobjects；
whereitrelatestotheconductandcharactersofmenwithwhomhehimselfhasacted，andinwhoseoccupationsandfortuneshehimselfhasborneapart。
Withthisadvantage，thepoetisthefirsttoofferthefruitsofhisgenius，andtoleadinthecareerofthoseartsbywhichthemindisdestinedtoexhibititsimaginations，andtoexpressitspassions。Everytribeofbarbarianshavetheirpassionateorhistoricrhymes，whichcontainthesuperstition，theenthusiasm，andtheadmirationofglory，withwhichthebreastsofmen，intheearlieststateofsociety，arepossessed。
Theydelightinverse-compositions，eitherbecausethecadenceofnumbersisnaturaltothelanguageofsentiment，orbecause，nothavingtheadvantageofwriting，theyareobligedtobringtheearinaidofthememory，inordertofacilitatetherepetition，andinsurethepreservationoftheirworks。
Whenweattendtothelanguagewhichsavagesemployonanysolemnoccasion，itappearsthatmanisapoetbynature。Whetheratfirstobligedbythemeredefectsofhistongue，andthescantinessofproperexpressions，orseducedbyapleasureofthefancyinstatingtheanalogyofitsobjects，heclotheseveryconceptioninimageandmetaphor。’Wehaveplantedthetreeofpeace，’saysanAmericanorator；’wehaveburiedtheaxeunderitsroots:wewillhenceforthreposeunderitsshade；wewilljointobrightenthechainthatbindsournationstogether。’Sucharethecollectionsofmetaphorwhichthosenationsemployintheirpublicharangues。Theyhavelikewisealreadyadoptedthoselivelyfigures，andthatdaringfreedomoflanguage，whichthelearnedhaveafterwardsfoundsowellfittedtoexpresstherapidtransitionsoftheimagination，andtheardoursofapassionatemind。
Ifwearerequiredtoexplain，howmencouldbepoets，ororators，beforetheywereaidedbythelearningofthescholarandthecritic？wemayinquire，inourturn，howbodiescouldfallbytheirweight，beforethelawsofgravitationwererecordedinbooks？Mind，aswellasbody，haslaws，whichareexemplifiedinthepracticeofmen，andwhichthecriticcollectsonlyaftertheexamplehasshewnwhattheyare。
Occasioned，probably，bythephysicalconnectionwehavementioned，betweentheemotionsofaheatedimagination，andtheimpressionsreceivedfrommusicandpatheticsounds，everytaleamongrudenationsisrepeatedinverse，andismadetotaketheformofasongTheearlyhistoryofallnationsisuniforminthisparticular。Priests，statesmen，andphilosophers，inthefirstagesofGreece，deliveredtheirinstructionsinpoetry，andmixedwiththedealersinmusicandheroicfable。
Itisnotsosurprising，however，thatpoetryshouldbethefirstspeciesofcompositionineverynation，asitis，thatastyleapparentlysodifficult，andsofarremovedfromordinaryuse，shouldbealmostasuniversallythefirsttoattainitsmaturity。Themostadmiredofallpoetslivedbeyondthereachofhistory，almostoftradition。Theartlesssongofthesavage，theheroiclegendofthebard，havesometimesamagnificentbeauty，whichnochangeoflanguagecanimprove，andnorefinementsofthecriticreform。
Underthesupposeddisadvantageofalimitedknowledge，andarudeapprehension，thesimplepoethasimpressionsthatmorethancompensatethedefectsofhisskill。Thebestsubjectsofpoetry，thecharactersoftheviolentandthebrave，thegenerousandtheintrepid，greatdangers，trialsoffortitudeandfidelity，areexhibitedwithinhisview，oraredeliveredintraditionswhichanimateliketruth，becausetheyareequallybelieved。Heisnotengagedinrecalling，likeVirgilorTasso，thesentimentsorsceneryofanageremotefromhisown:heneedsnotbetoldbythecritic，(22*)torecollectwhatanotherwouldhavethought，orinwhatmanneranotherwouldhaveexpressedhisconception。Thesimplepassions，friendship，resentment，andlove，arethemovementsofhisownmind，andhehasnooccasiontocopy。Simpleandvehementinhisconceptionsandfeelings，heknowsnodiversityofthought，orofstyle，tomisleadortoexercisehisjudgement。Hedeliverstheemotionsoftheheart，inwordssuggestedbytheheart:forheknowsnoother。Andhenceitis，thatwhileweadmirethejudgementandinventionofVirgil，andofotherlaterpoets，thesetermsappearmisappliedtoHomer。
Thoughintelligent，aswellassublime，inhisconceptions，wecannotanticipatethelightsofhisunderstanding，northemovementsofhisheart:heappearstospeakfrominspiration，notfrominvention；andtobeguidedinthechoiceofhisthoughtsandexpressionsbyasupernaturalinstinct，notbyreflection。
Thelanguageofearlyages，isinonerespect，simpleandconfined；inanother，itisvariedandfree:itallowsliberties，which，tothepoetofaftertimes，aredenied。
Inrudeagesmenarenotseparatedbydistinctionsofrankorprofession。Theyliveinonemanner，andspeakonedialect。Thebardisnottochusehisexpressionamongthesingularaccentsofdifferentconditions。Hehasnottoguardhislanguagefromthepeculiarerrorsofthemechanic，thepeasant，thescholar，orthecourtier，inordertofindthatelegantpropriety，andjustelevation，whichisfreefromthevulgarofoneclass，thepedanticofthesecond，ortheflippantofthethird。Thenameofeveryobject，andofeverysentiment，isfixed；andifhisconceptionhasthedignityofnature，hisexpressionwillhaveapuritywhichdoesnotdependonhischoice。
Withthisapparentconfinementinthechoiceofhiswords，heisatlibertytobreakthroughtheordinarymodesofconstruction；andintheformofalanguagenotestablishedbyrules，mayfindforhimselfacadenceagreeabletothetoneofhismind。Thelibertyhetakes，whilehismeaningisstriking，andhislanguageisraised，appearsanimprovement，notatrespassongrammar。Hedeliversastyletotheagesthatfollow，andbecomesamodelfromwhichhisposterityjudge。
Butwhatevermaybetheearlydispositionofmankindtopoetry，ortheadvantagetheypossessincultivatingthisspeciesofliterature；whethertheearlymaturityofpoeticalcompositionsarisefromtheirbeingthefirststudied，orfromtheirhavingacharmtoengagepersonsoftheliveliestgenius，whoarebestqualifiedtoimprovetheeloquenceoftheirnativetongue；itisaremarkablefact，that，notonlyincountrieswhereeveryveinofcompositionwasoriginal，andwasopenedintheorderofnaturalsuccession；butevenatRome，andinmodernEurope，wherethelearnedbeganearlytopractiseonforeignmodels，wehavepoetsofeverynation，whoareperusedwithpleasure，whiletheprosewritersofthesameagesareneglected。
AsSophoclesandEuripidesprecededthehistoriansandmoralistsofGreece，notonlyNaeviusandEnnius，whowrotetheRomanhistoryinverse，butLucilius，Plautus，Terence，andwemayaddLucretius，werepriortoCicero，Sallust，orCaesar。
DanteandPetrarchwentbeforeanygoodprosewriterinItaly；
CorneilleandRacinebroughtonthefineageofprosecompositionsinFrance；andwehadinEngland，notonlyChaucerandSpenser，butShakespearandMilton，whileourattemptsinhistoryorsciencewereyetintheirinfancy；anddeserveourattention，onlyforthesakeofthemattertheytreat。
Hillanicus，whoisreckonedamongthefirstprosewritersinGreece，andwhoimmediatelypreceded，orwasthecontemporaryofHerodotus，setoutwithdeclaringhisintentiontoremovefromhistorythewildrepresentations，andextravagantfictions，withwhichithadbeendisgracedbythepoets。(23*)Thewantofrecordsorauthorities，relatingtoanydistanttransactions，mayhavehinderedhim，asitdidhisimmediatesuccessor，fromgivingtruthalltheadvantageitmighthavereapedfromthistransitiontoprose。Thereare，however，agesintheprogressofsociety，whensuchapropositionmustbefavourablyreceived。Whenmenbecomeoccupiedonthesubjectsofpolicy，orcommercialarts，theywishtobeinformedandinstructed，aswellasmoved。Theyareinterestedbywhatwasrealinpasttransactions。Theybuildonthisfoundation，thereflectionsandreasoningstheyapplytopresentaffairs，andwishtoreceiveinformationonthesubjectofdifferentpursuits，andofprojectsinwhichtheybegintobeengaged。Themannersofmen，thepracticeofordinarylife，andtheformofsociety，furnishtheirsubjectstothemoralandpoliticalwriter。Mereingenuity，justnessofsentiment，andcorrectrepresentation，thoughconveyedinordinarylanguage，areunderstoodtoconstituteliterarymerit，andbyapplyingtoreasonmorethantotheimaginationandpassions，meetwithareceptionthatisduetotheinstructiontheybring。
Thetalentsofmencometobeemployedinavarietyofaffairs，andtheirinquiriesdirectedtodifferentsubjects。
Knowledgeisimportantineverydepartmentofcivilsociety，andrequisitetothepracticeofeveryart。Thescienceofnature，morals，politics，andhistory，findtheirseveraladmirers；andevenpoetryitself，whichretainsitsformerstationintheregionofwarmimaginationandenthusiasticpassion，appearsinagrowingvarietyofforms。
Mattershaveproceededsofar，withouttheaidofforeignexamples，orthedirectionofschools。ThecartofThespiswaschangedintoatheatre，nottogratifythelearned，buttopleasetheAthenianpopulace:andtheprizeofpoeticalmeritwasdecidedbythispopulaceequallybeforeandaftertheinventionofrules。TheGreekswereunacquaintedwitheverylanguagebuttheirown；andiftheybecamelearned，itwasonlybystudyingwhattheythemselveshadproduced:thechildishmythology，whichtheyaresaidtohavecopiedfromAsia，wasequallyoflittleavailinpromotingtheirloveofarts，ortheirsuccessinthepracticeofthem。
Whenthehistorianisstruckwiththeeventshehaswitnessed，orheard；whenheisexcitedtorelatethembyhisreflectionsorhispassions；whenthestatesman，whoisrequiredtospeakinpublic，isobligedtoprepareforeveryremarkableappearanceinstudiedharangues；whenconversationbecomesextensiveandrefined；andwhenthesocialfeelingsandreflectionsofmenarecommittedtowriting，asystemoflearningmayarisefromthebustleofanactivelife。Societyitselfistheschool，anditslessonsaredeliveredinthepracticeofrealaffairs。Anauthorwritesfromobservationshehasmadeonhissubject，notfromthesuggestionofbooks；andeveryproductioncarriesthemarkofhischaracterasaman，notofhismereproficiencyasastudentorscholar。Itmaybemadeaquestion，whetherthetroubleofseekingfordistantmodels，andofwadingforinstruction，throughdarkallusionsandlanguagesunknown，mightnothavequenchedhisfire，andrenderedhimawriterofaveryinferiorclass。
Ifsocietymaythusbeconsideredasaschoolforletters，itisprobablethatitslessonsarevariedineveryseparatestate，andineveryage。Foracertainperiod，thesevereapplicationsoftheRomanpeopletopolicyandwarsuppressedtheliteraryarts，andappeartohavestifledthegeniusevenofthehistorianandthepoet。TheinstitutionsofSpartagaveaprofessedcontemptforwhateverwasnotconnectedwiththepracticalvirtuesofavigorousandresolutespirit:thecharmsofimagination，andtheparadeoflanguage，werebythispeopleclassedwiththeartsofthecookandtheperfumer:theirsongsinpraiseoffortitudearementionedbysomewriters；andcollectionsoftheirwittysayingandreparteesarestillpreserved:theyindicatethevirtuesandtheabilitiesofanactivepeople，nottheirproficiencyinscienceorliterarytaste。Possessedofwhatwasessentialtohappinessinthevirtuesoftheheart，theyhadadiscernmentofitsvalue，unimbarrassedbythenumberlessobjectsonwhichmankindingeneralaresomuchatalosstoadjusttheiresteem:fixedintheirownapprehension，theyturnedasharpedgeonthefolliesofmankind。’Whenwillyoubegintopractiseit？’wasthequestionofaSpartantoapersonwho，inanadvancedageoflife，wasstilloccupiedwithquestionsonthenatureofvirtue。
Whilethispeopleconfinedtheirstudiestoonequestion，Howtoimproveandtopreservethecourageandthedisinterestedaffectionsofthehumanheart？theirrivalstheAtheniansgaveascopetorefinementoneveryobjectofreflectionorpassion。Bytherewards，eitherofprofitorofreputation，whichtheybestowedoneveryeffortofingenuityemployedinministeringtothepleasure，thedecoration，ortheconveniencyoflife；bythevarietyofconditionsinwhichtheircitizenswereplaced；bytheirinequalitiesoffortune，andtheirseveralpursuitsinwar，politics，commerce，andlucrativearts，theyawakenedwhateverwaseithergoodorbadinthenaturaldispositionsofmen。Everyroadtoeminencewasopened:eloquence，fortitude，militaryskill，envy，detraction，faction，andtreason，eventhemuseherself，wascourtedtobestowimportanceamongabusy，acute，andturbulentpeople。
Fromthisexample，wemaysafelyconclude，thatalthoughbusinessissometimesarivaltostudy，retirementandleisurearenottheprincipalrequisitestotheimprovement，perhapsnoteventotheexercise，ofliterarytalents。Themoststrikingexertionsofimaginationandsentimenthaveareferencetomankind:theyareexcitedbythepresenceandintercourseofmen:
theyhavemostvigourwhenactuatedinthemindbytheoperationofitsprincipalsprings，bytheemulations，thefriendships，andtheoppositions，whichsubsistamongaforwardandaspiringpeople。Amidstthegreatoccasionswhichputafree，andevenalicentious，societyinmotion，itsmembersbecomecapableofeveryexertion；andthesamesceneswhichgaveemploymenttoThemistoclesandThrasybulus，inspired，bycontagion，thegeniusofSophoclesandPlato。Thepetulantandtheingenuousfindanequalscopetotheirtalents；andliterarymonumentsbecometherepositoriesofenvyandfolly，aswellasofwisdomandvirtue。
Greece，dividedintomanylittlestates，andagitated，beyondanyspotontheglobe，bydomesticcontentionsandforeignwars，settheexampleineveryspeciesofliterature。ThefirewascommunicatedtoRome；notwhenthestateceasedtobewarlike，andhaddiscontinuedherpoliticalagitations，butwhenshemixedtheloveofrefinementandofpleasurewithhernationalpursuits，andindulgedaninclinationtostudyinthemidstofferments，occasionedbythewarsandpretensionsofoppositefactions。ItwasrevivedinmodernEuropeamongtheturbulentstatesofItaly，andspreadtotheNorth，togetherwiththespiritwhichshookthefabricoftheGothicpolicy。itrosewhilemenweredividedintoparties，undercivilorreligiousdenominations，andwhentheywereatvarianceonsubjectsheldthemostimportantandsacred。
Wemaybesatisfied，fromtheexampleofmanyages，thatliberalendowmentsbestowedonlearnedsocieties，andtheleisurewithwhichtheywerefurnishedforstudy，arenotthelikeliestmeanstoexcitetheexertionsofgenius:evenscienceitself，thesupposedoffspringofleisure，pinedintheshadeofmonasticretirement。Menatadistancefromtheobjectsofusefulknowledge，untouchedbythemotivesthatanimateanactiveandavigorousmind，couldproduceonlythejargonofatechnicallanguage，andaccumulatetheimpertinenceofacademicalforms。
Tospeakortowritejustlyfromanobservationofnature，itisnecessarytohavefeltthesentimentsofnature。Hewhoispenetratingandardentintheconductoflife，willprobablyexertaproportionalforceandingenuityintheexerciseofhisliterarytalents:andalthoughwritingmaybecomeatrade，andrequirealltheapplicationandstudywhicharebestowedonanyothercalling；yettheprincipalrequisitesinthiscallingare，thespiritandsensibilityofavigorousmind。
Inoneperiod，theschoolmaytakeitslightanddirectionfromactivelife；inanother，itistrue，theremainsofanactivespiritaregreatlysupportedbyliterarymonuments，andbythehistoryoftransactionsthatpreservetheexamplesandtheexperienceofformerandofbettertimes。Butinwhatevermannermenareformedforgreateffortsofelocutionorconduct，itappearsthemostglaringofallotherdeceptions，tolookfortheaccomplishmentsofahumancharacterinthemereattainmentsofspeculation，whilstweneglectthequalitiesoffortitudeandpublicaffection，whicharesonecessarytorenderourknowledgeanarticleofhappinessorofuse。
NOTES:
1。SeeRussianAtlas。
2。TheTchutzi。
3。NotestotheGenealogicalHistoryoftheTartars。
4。D’Arvieux。
5。Charlevoix。
6。TheDutchsailorswhowereemployedinthesiegeofMalaco，toreorburntthesail-clothwhichwasgiventhemtomaketents，thattheymightnothavethetroubleofmakingorpitchingthem。
Voy。deMatelief。
7。ComparethestateofHungarywiththatofHolland。
8。DeRetzMemoirs。
9。PartI，sect。10。
10。SeeDrRobertson’sHistoryofScotland，b。1。
11。CollectionofDutchVoyages。
12。Strahlenberg。
13。Dampier。
14。Xenophon。
15。Thucydides，book1。
16。Polybius。
17。InBritain，bythesuspensionofHabeascorpus。
18。D’Arvieux’sHistoryoftheArabs。
19。PlutarchinthelifeofSolon——Livy。
20。Seepart2，sect。2。
21。Aristotle。
22。SeeLonginus。
23。QuotedbyDemetriusPhalerius。
PartFourth。
OfConsequencesthatresultfromtheAdvancementofCivilandCommercialArtsSectionI。
OftheSeparationofArtsandProfessions。
Itisevident，that，howeverurgedbyasenseofnecessity，andadesireofconvenience，orfavouredbyanyadvantagesofsituationandpolicy，apeoplecanmakenogreatprogressincultivatingtheartsoflife，untiltheyhaveseparated，andcommittedtodifferentpersons，theseveraltasks，whichrequireapeculiarskillandattention。Thesavage，orthebarbarian，whomustbuildandplant，andfabricateforhimself，prefers，intheintervalofgreatalarmsandfatigues，theenjoymentsofslothtotheimprovementofhisfortune:heis，perhaps，bythediversityofhiswants，discouragedfromindustry；or，byhisdividedattention，preventedfromacquiringskillinthemanagementofanyparticularsubject。
Theenjoymentofpeace，however，andtheprospectofbeingabletoexchangeonecommodityforanother，turns，bydegrees，thehunterandthewarriorintoatradesmanandamerchant。Theaccidentswhichdistributethemeansofsubsistenceunequally，inclination，andfavourableopportunities，assignthedifferentoccupationsofmen；andasenseofutilityleadsthem，withoutend，tosubdividetheirprofessions。
Theartistfinds，thatthemorehecanconfinehisattentiontoaparticularpartofanywork，hisproductionsarethemoreperfect，andgrowunderhishandsinthegreaterquantities。
Everyundertakerinmanufacturefinds，thatthemorehecansubdividethetasksofhisworkmen，andthemorehandshecanemployonseparatearticles，themorearehisexpencesdiminished，andhisprofitsincreased。Theconsumertoorequires，ineverykindofcommodity，aworkmanshipmoreperfectthanhandsemployedonavarietyofsubjectscanproduce；andtheprogressofcommerceisbutacontinuedsubdivisionofthemechanicalarts。
Everycraftmayingrossthewholeofaman’sattention，andhasamysterywhichmustbestudiedorlearnedbyaregularapprenticeship。Nationsoftradesmencometoconsistofmemberswho，beyondtheirownparticulartrade，areignorantofallhumanaffairs，andwhomaycontributetothepreservationandenlargementoftheircommonwealth，withoutmakingitsinterestanobjectoftheirregardorattention。Everyindividualisdistinguishedbyhiscalling，andhasaplacetowhichheisfitted。Thesavage，whoknowsnodistinctionbutthatofhismerit，ofhissex，orofhisspecies，andtowhomhiscommunityisthesovereignobjectofaffection，isastonishedtofind，thatinasceneofthisnature，hisbeingamandoesnotqualifyhimforanystationwhatever:hefliestothewoodswithamazement，distaste，andaversion。
Bytheseparationofartsandprofessions，thesourcesofwealtharelaidopen；everyspeciesofmaterialiswroughtuptothegreatestperfection，andeverycommodityisproducedinthegreatestabundance。Thestatemayestimateitsprofitsanditsrevenuesbythenumberofitspeople。Itmayprocure，byitstreasure，thatnationalconsiderationandpower，whichthesavagemaintainsattheexpenceofhisblood。
Theadvantagegainedintheinferiorbranchesofmanufacturebytheseparationoftheirparts，seemtobeequalledbythosewhicharisefromasimilardeviceinthehigherdepartmentsofpolicyandwar。Thesoldierisrelievedfromeverycarebutthatofhisservice；statesmendividethebusinessofcivilgovernmentintoshares；andtheservantsofthepublic，ineveryoffice，withoutbeingskilfulintheaffairsofstate，maysucceed，byobservingformswhicharealreadyestablishedontheexperienceofothers。Theyaremade，likethepartsofanengine，toconcurtoapurpose，withoutanyconcertoftheirown:and，equallyblindwiththetradertoanygeneralcombination，theyunitewithhim，infurnishingtothestateitsresources，itsconduct，anditsforce。
Theartificesofthebeaver，theant，andthebee，areascribedtothewisdomofnature。Thoseofpolishednationsareascribedtothemselves，andaresupposedtoindicateacapacitysuperiortothatofrudeminds。Buttheestablishmentsofmen，likethoseofeveryanimal，aresuggestedbynature，andaretheresultofinstinct，directedbythevarietyofsituationsinwhichmankindareplaced。Thoseestablishmentsarosefromsuccessiveimprovementsthatweremade，withoutanysenseoftheirgeneraleffect；andtheybringhumanaffairstoastateofcomplication，whichthegreatestreachofcapacitywithwhichhumannaturewaseveradorned，couldnothaveprojected；norevenwhenthewholeiscarriedintoexecution，canitbecomprehendedinitsfullextent。
Whocouldanticipate，orevenenumerate，theseparateoccupationsandprofessionsbywhichthemembersofanycommercialstatearedistinguished；thevarietyofdeviceswhicharepractisedinseparatecells，andwhichtheartist，attentivetohisownaffair，hasinvented，toabridgeortofacilitatehisseparatetask？Incomingtothismightyend，everygeneration，comparedtoitspredecessors，mayhaveappearedtobeingenious；
comparedtoitsfollowers，mayhaveappearedtobedull:andhumaningenuity，whateverheightsitmayhavegainedinasuccessionofages，continuestomovewithanequalpace，andtocreepinmakingthelastaswellasthefirststepofcommercialorcivilimprovement。
Itmayevenbedoubted，whetherthemeasureofnationalcapacityincreaseswiththeadvancementofarts。Manymechanicalarts，indeed，requirenocapacity；theysucceedbestunderatotalsuppressionofsentimentandreason；andignoranceisthemotherofindustryaswellasofsuperstition。Reflectionandfancyaresubjecttoerr；butahabitofmovingthehand，orthefoot，isindependentofeither。Manufactures，accordingly，prospermost，wherethemindisleastconsulted，andwheretheworkshopmay，withoutanygreateffortofimagination，beconsideredasanengine，thepartsofwhicharemen。
Theforesthasbeenfelledbythesavagewithouttheuseoftheaxe，andweightshavebeenraisedwithouttheaidofthemechanicalpowers。Themeritoftheinventor，ineverybranch，probablydeservesapreferencetothatoftheperformer；andhewhoinventedatool，orcouldworkwithoutitsassistance，deservedthepraiseofingenuityinamuchhigherdegreethanthemereartist，who，byitsassistance，producedasuperiorwork。
Butifmanypartsinthepracticeofeveryart，andinthedetailofeverydepartment，requirenoabilities，oractuallytendtocontractandtolimittheviewsofthemind，thereareotherswhichleadtogeneralreflections，andtoenlargementofthought。Eveninmanufacture，thegeniusofthemaster，perhaps，iscultivated，whilethatoftheinferiorworkmanlieswaste。Thestatesmanmayhaveawidecomprehensionofhumanaffairs，whilethetoolsheemploysareignorantofthesysteminwhichtheyarethemselvescombined。Thegeneralofficermaybeagreatproficientintheknowledgeofwar，whilethesoldierisconfinedtoafewmotionsofthehandandthefoot。Theformermayhavegained，whatthelatterhaslost；andbeingoccupiedintheconductofdisciplinedarmies，maypractiseonalargerscale，alltheartsofpreservation，ofdeception，andofstratagem，whichthesavageexertsinleadingasmallparty，ormerelyindefendinghimself。
Thepractitionerofeveryartandprofessionmayaffordmatterofgeneralspeculationtothemanofscience；andthinkingitself，inthisageofseparations，maybecomeapeculiarcraft。
Inthebustleofcivilpursuitsandoccupations，menappearinavarietyoflights，andsuggestmatterofinquiryandfancy，bywhichconversationisenlivened，andgreatlyenlarged。Theproductionsofingenuityarebroughttothemarket；andmenarewillingtopayforwhateverhasatendencytoinformoramuse。Bythismeanstheidle，aswellasthebusy，contributetoforwardtheprogressofarts，andbestowonpolishednationsthatairofsuperioringenuity，underwhichtheyappeartohavegainedtheendsthatwerepursuedbythesavageinhisforest，knowledge，order，andwealth。
SectionII。
OftheSubordinationconsequenttotheSeparationofArtsandProfessionsThereisonegroundofsubordinationinthedifferenceofnaturaltalentsanddispositions；asecondintheunequaldivisionofproperty；andathird，notlesssensible，inthehabitswhichareacquiredbythepracticeofdifferentarts。
Someemploymentsareliberal，othersmechanic。Theyrequiredifferenttalents，andinspiredifferentsentiments；andwhetherornotthisbethecauseofthepreferenceweactuallygive，itiscertainlyreasonabletoformouropinionoftherankthatisduetomenofcertainprofessionsandstations，fromtheinfluenceoftheirmanneroflifeincultivatingthepowersofthemind，orinpreservingthesentimentsoftheheart。
Thereisanelevationnaturaltoman，bywhichhewouldbethought，inhisrudeststate，howeverurgedbynecessity，toriseabovetheconsiderationofmeresubsistence，andtheregardsofinterest:Hewouldappeartoactonlyfromtheheart，initsengagementsoffriendship，oropposition；hewouldshewhimselfonlyuponoccasionsofdangerordifficulty，andleaveordinarycarestotheweakortheservile。
Thesameapprehensions，ineverysituation，regulatehisnotionsofmeannessorofdignity。Inthatofpolishedsociety，hisdesiretoavoidthecharacterofsordid，makeshimconcealhisregardforwhatrelatesmerelytohispreservationorhislivelihood。Inhisestimation，thebeggar，whodependsuponcharity；thelabourer，whotoilsthathemayeat；themechanic，whoseartrequiresnoexertionofgenius，aredegradedbytheobjecttheypursue，andbythemeanstheyemploytoattainit。
Professionsrequiringmoreknowledgeandstudy；proceedingontheexerciseoffancy，andtheloveofperfection；leadingtoapplauseaswellastoprofit，placetheartistinasuperiorclass，andbringhimnearertothatstationinwhichmenaresupposedtobehighest；becauseinittheyareboundtonotask；
becausetheyarelefttofollowthedispositionofthemind，andtotakethatpartinsociety，towhichtheyareledbythesentimentsoftheheart，orbythecallsofthepublic。
Thislastwasthestation，which，inthedistinctionbetwixtfreemenandslaves，thecitizensofeveryancientrepublicstrovetogain，andtomaintainforthemselves。Women，orslaves，intheearliestages，hadbeensetapartforthepurposesofdomesticcare，orbodilylabour；andintheprogressoflucrativearts，thelatterwerebredtomechanicalprofessions，andwereevenintrustedwithmerchandiseforthebenefitoftheirmasters。
Freemenwouldbeunderstoodtohavenoobjectbesidethoseofpoliticsandwar。Inthismanner，thehonoursofonehalfofthespeciesweresacrificedtothoseoftheother；asstonesfromthesamequarryareburiedinthefoundation，tosustaintheblockswhichhappentobehewnforthesuperiorpartsofthepile。InthemidstofourencomiumsbestowedontheGreeksandtheRomans，weare，bythiscircumstance，madetoremember，thatnohumaninstitutionisperfect。
InmanyoftheGrecianstates，thebenefitsarisingtothefreefromthiscrueldistinction，werenotconferredequallyonallthecitizens。Wealthbeingunequallydivided，therichalonewereexemptedfromlabour；thepoorwerereducedtoworkfortheirownsubsistence:interestwasareigningpassioninboth，andthepossessionofslaves，likethatofanyotherlucrativeproperty，becameanobjectofavarice，notanexemptionfromsordidattentions。Theentireeffectsoftheinstitutionwereobtained，orcontinuedtobeenjoyedforanyconsiderabletime，atSpartaalone。Wefeelitsinjustice；wesufferforthehelot，undertheseveritiesandunequaltreatmenttowhichhewasexposed:butwhenwethinkonlyofthesuperiororderofmeninthisstate；whenweattendtothatelevationandmagnanimityofspirit，forwhichdangerhadnoterror，interestnomeanstocorrupt；whenweconsiderthemasfriends，orascitizens，weareapttoforget，likethemselves，thatslaveshaveatitletobetreatedlikemen。
Welookforelevationofsentiment，andliberalityofmind，amongthoseordersofcitizens，who，bytheircondition，andtheirfortunes，arerelievedfromsordidcaresandattentions。
ThiswasthedescriptionofafreemanatSparta；andifthelotofaslaveamongtheancientswasreallymorewretchedthanthatoftheindigentlabourerandthemechanicamongthemoderns，itmaybedoubted，whetherthesuperiororders，whoareinpossessionofconsiderationandhonours，donotproportionallyfailinthedignitywhichbefitstheircondition。Ifthepretensionstoequaljusticeandfreedomshouldterminateinrenderingeveryclassequallyservileandmercenary，wemakeanationofhelots，andhavenofreecitizens。
Ineverycommercialstate，notwithstandinganypretensiontoequalrights，theexaltationofafewmustdepressthemany。Inthisarrangement，wethinkthattheextrememeannessofsomeclassesmustarisechieflyfromthedefectofknowledge，andofliberaleducation；andwerefertosuchclasses，astoanimageofwhatourspeciesmusthavebeeninitsrudeanduncultivatedstate。Butweforgethowmanycircumstances，especiallyinpopulouscities，tendtocorruptthelowestordersofmen。
Ignoranceistheleastoftheirfailings。Anadmirationofwealthunpossessed，becomingaprincipleofenvy，orofservility；ahabitofactingperpetuallywithaviewtoprofit，andunderasenseofsubjection；thecrimestowhichtheyareallured，inordertofeedtheirdebauch，ortogratifytheiravarice，areexamples，notofignorance，butofcorruptionandbaseness。Ifthesavagehasnotreceivedourinstructions，heislikewiseunacquaintedwithourvices。Heknowsnosuperior，andcannotbeservile；heknowsnodistinctionsoffortune，andcannotbeenvious；heactsfromhistalentsinthehigheststationwhichhumansocietycanoffer，thatofthecounsellor，andthesoldierofhiscountry。Towardforminghissentiments，heknowsallthattheheartrequirestobeknown；hecandistinguishthefriendwhomheloves，andthepublicinterestwhichawakenshiszeal。
Theprincipalobjectionstodemocraticalorpopulargovernment，aretakenfromtheinequalitieswhichariseamongmenintheresultofcommercialarts。Anditmustbeconfessed，thatpopularassemblies，whencomposedofmenwhosedispositionsaresordid，andwhoseordinaryapplicationsareilliberal，howevertheymaybeintrustedwiththechoiceoftheirmastersandleaders，arecertainly，intheirownpersons，unfittocommand。
Howcanhewhohasconfinedhisviewstohisownsubsistenceorpreservation，beintrustedwiththeconductofnations？Suchmen，whenadmittedtodeliberateonmattersofstate，bringtoitscouncilsconfusionandtumult，orservilityandcorruption；andseldomsufferittoreposefromruinousfactions，ortheeffectofresolutionsillformedorillconducted。
TheAtheniansretainedtheirpopulargovernmentunderallthesedefects。Themechanicwasobliged，underapenalty，toappearinthepublicmarket-place，andtoheardebatesonthesubjectsofwar，andofpeace。Hewastemptedbypecuniaryrewards，toattendonthetrialofcivilandcriminalcauses。Butnotwithstandinganexercisetendingsomuchtocultivatetheirtalents，theindigentcamealwayswithmindsintentuponprofit，orwiththehabitsofanilliberalcalling。Sunkunderthesenseoftheirpersonaldisparityandweakness，theywerereadytoresignthemselvesentirelytotheinfluenceofsomepopularleader，whoflatteredtheirpassions，andwroughtontheirfears；
or，actuatedbyenvy，theywerereadytobanishfromthestatewhomsoeverwasrespectableandeminentinthesuperiororderofcitizens:andwhetherfromtheirneglectofthepublicatonetime，ortheirmale-administrationatanother，thesovereigntywaseverymomentreadytodropfromtheirhands。
Thepeople，inthiscase，are，infact，frequentlygovernedbyone，orafew，whoknowhowtoconductthem。PericlespossessedaspeciesofprincelyauthorityatAthens；Crassus，Pompey，andCaesar，eitherjointlyorsuccessively，possessedforaconsiderableperiodthesovereigndirectionatRome，Whetheringreatorinsmallstates，democracyispreservedwithdifficulty，underthedisparitiesofcondition，andtheunequalcultivationofthemind，whichattendthevarietyofpursuits，andapplications，thatseparatemankindintheadvancedstateofcommercialarts。Inthis，however，wedobutpleadagainsttheformofdemocracy，aftertheprincipleisremoved；andseetheabsurdityofpretensionstoequalinfluenceandconsideration，afterthecharactersofmenhaveceasedtobesimilar。
SectionIII。
OftheMannersofPolishedandCommercialNationsMankind，whenintheirrudestate，haveagreatuniformityofmanners；butwhencivilized，theyareengagedinavarietyofpursuits；theytreadonalargerfield，andseparatetoagreaterdistance。Iftheybeguided，however，bysimilardispositions，andbylikesuggestionsofnature，theywillprobably，intheend，aswellasinthebeginningoftheirprogress，continuetoagreeinmanyparticulars；andwhilecommunitiesadmit，intheirmembers，thatdiversityofranksandprofessionswhichwehavealreadydescribed，astheconsequenceorthefoundationofcommerce，theywillresembleeachotherinmanyeffectsofthisdistribution，andofothercircumstancesinwhichtheynearlyconcur。
Undereveryformofgovernment，statesmenendeavourtoremovethedangersbywhichtheyarethreatenedfromabroad，andthedisturbanceswhichmolestthemathome。Bythisconduct，ifsuccessful，theyinafewagesgainanascendantfortheircountry；establishafrontieratadistancefromitscapital；
theyfind，inthemutualdesiresoftranquillity，whichcometopossessmankind，andinthosepublicestablishmentswhichtendtokeepthepeaceofsociety，arespitefromforeignwars，andarelieffromdomesticdisorders。Theylearntodecideeverycontestwithouttumult，andtosecure，bytheauthorityoflaw，everycitizeninthepossessionofhispersonalrights。
Inthiscondition，towhichthrivingnationsaspire，andwhichtheyinsomemeasureattain，mankindhavinglaidthebasisofsafety，proceedtoerectasuperstructuresuitabletotheirviews。Theconsequenceisvariousindifferentstates；evenindifferentordersofmenofthesamecommunity；andtheeffecttoeveryindividualcorrespondswithhisstation。Itenablesthestatesmanandthesoldiertosettletheformsoftheirdifferentprocedure；itenablesthepractitionerineveryprofessiontopursuehisseparateadvantage；itaffordsthemanofpleasureatimeforrefinement，andthespeculative，leisureforliteraryconversationorstudy。
Inthisscene，mattersthathavelittlereferencetotheactivepursuitsofmankind，aremadesubjectsofinquiry，andtheexerciseofsentimentandreasonitselfbecomesaprofession。Thesongsofthebard，theharanguesofthestatesmanandthewarrior，thetraditionandthestoryofancienttimes，areconsideredasthemodels，ortheearliestproduction，ofsomanyarts，whichitbecomestheobjectofdifferentprofessionstocopyortoimprove。Theworksoffancy，likethesubjectsofnaturalhistory，aredistinguishedintoclassesandspecies；therulesofeveryparticularkindaredistinctlycollected；andthelibraryisstored，likethewarehouse，withthefinishedmanufactureofdifferentarts，who，withtheaidsofthegrammarianandthecritic，aspire，eachinhisparticularway，toinstructthehead，ortomovetheheart。
Everynationisamotleyassemblageofdifferentcharacters，andcontains，underanypoliticalform，someexamplesofthatvariety，whichthehumours，tempers，andapprehensionsofmen，sodifferentlyemployed，arelikelytofurnish。Everyprofessionhasitspointofhonour，anditssystemofmanners；themerchanthispunctualityandfairdealing；thestatesmanhiscapacityandaddress；themanofsociety，hisgood-breedingandwit。Everystationhasacarriage，adress，aceremonial，bywhichitisdistinguished，andbywhichitsuppressesthenationalcharacterunderthatoftherank，oroftheindividual。
