ChapterIV
OftheNamesofSimpleIdeas1。Namesofsimpleideas，modes，andsubstances，haveeachsomethingpeculiar。Thoughallwords，asIhaveshown，signifynothingimmediatelybuttheideasinthemindofthespeaker；yet，uponanearersurvey，weshallfindthenamesofsimpleideas，mixedmodes(underwhichIcompriserelationstoo)，andnaturalsubstances，haveeachofthemsomethingpeculiaranddifferentfromtheother。Forexample:
2。Namesofsimpleideas，andofsubstancesintimaterealexistence。
First，thenamesofsimpleideasandsubstances，withtheabstractideasinthemindwhichtheyimmediatelysignify，intimatealsosomerealexistence，fromwhichwasderivedtheiroriginalpattern。Butthenamesofmixedmodesterminateintheideathatisinthemind，andleadnotthethoughtsanyfurther；asweshallseemoreatlargeinthefollowingchapter。
3。Namesofsimpleideasandmodessignifyalwaysbothrealandnominalessences。Secondly，Thenamesofsimpleideasandmodessignifyalwaystherealaswellasnominalessenceoftheirspecies。
Butthenamesofnaturalsubstancessignifyrarely，ifever，anythingbutbarelythenominalessencesofthosespecies；asweshallshowinthechapterthattreatsofthenamesofsubstancesinparticular。
4。Namesofsimpleideasareundefinable。Thirdly，Thenamesofsimpleideasarenotcapableofanydefinition；thenamesofallcomplexideasare。Ithasnot，thatIknow，beenyetobservedbyanybodywhatwordsare，andwhatarenot，capableofbeingdefined；
thewantwhereofis(asIamapttothink)notseldomtheoccasionofgreatwranglingandobscurityinmen’sdiscourses，whilstsomedemanddefinitionsoftermsthatcannotbedefined；andothersthinktheyoughtnottorestsatisfiedinanexplicationmadebyamoregeneralword，anditsrestriction，(ortospeakintermsofart，byagenusanddifference)，when，evenaftersuchdefinition，madeaccordingtorule，thosewhohearithaveoftennomoreaclearconceptionofthemeaningofthewordthantheyhadbefore。ThisatleastIthink，thattheshowingwhatwordsare，andwhatarenot，capableofdefinitions，andwhereinconsistsagooddefinition，isnotwhollybesidesourpresentpurpose；andperhapswillaffordsomuchlighttothenatureofthesesignsandourideas，astodeserveamoreparticularconsideration。
5。Ifallnamesweredefinable，itwouldbeaprocessininfinitum。Iwillnotheretroublemyselftoprovethatalltermsarenotdefinable，fromthatprogressininfinitum，whichitwillvisiblyleadusinto，ifweshouldallowthatallnamescouldbedefined。For，ifthetermsofonedefinitionwerestilltobedefinedbyanother，whereatlastshouldwestop？ButIshall，fromthenatureofourideas，andthesignificationofourwords，showwhysomenamescan，andotherscannotbedefined；andwhichtheyare。
6。Whatadefinitionis。Ithinkitisagreed，thatadefinitionisnothingelsebuttheshowingthemeaningofonewordbyseveralothernotsynonymousterms。Themeaningofwordsbeingonlytheideastheyaremadetostandforbyhimthatusesthem，themeaningofanytermisthenshowed，orthewordisdefined，when，byotherwords，theideaitismadethesignof，andannexedto，inthemindofthespeaker，isasitwererepresented，orsetbeforetheviewofanother；
andthusitssignificationisascertained。Thisistheonlyuseandendofdefinitions；andthereforetheonlymeasureofwhatis，orisnotagooddefinition。
7。Simpleideas，whyundefinable。Thisbeingpremised，Isaythatthenamesofsimpleideas，andthoseonly，areincapableofbeingdefined。Thereasonwhereofisthis，Thattheseveraltermsofadefinition，signifyingseveralideas，theycanalltogetherbynomeansrepresentanideawhichhasnocompositionatall:andthereforeadefinition，whichisproperlynothingbuttheshowingthemeaningofonewordbyseveralothersnotsignifyingeachthesamething，caninthenamesofsimpleideashavenoplace。
8。Instances:scholasticdefinitionsofmotion。Thenotobservingthisdifferenceinourideas，andtheirnames，hasproducedthateminenttriflingintheschools，whichissoeasytobeobservedinthedefinitionstheygiveusofsomefewofthesesimpleideas。For，astothegreatestpartofthem，eventhosemastersofdefinitionswerefaintoleavethemuntouched，merelybytheimpossibilitytheyfoundinit。Whatmoreexquisitejargoncouldthewitofmaninvent，thanthisdefinition:-\"Theactofabeinginpower，asfarforthasinpower\"；whichwouldpuzzleanyrationalman，towhomitwasnotalreadyknownbyitsfamousabsurdity，toguesswhatworditcouldeverbesupposedtobetheexplicationof。IfTully，askingaDutchmanwhatbeweegingewas，shouldhavereceivedthisexplicationinhisownlanguage，thatitwas\"actusentisinpotentiaquatenusinpotentia\"；Iaskwhetheranyonecanimaginehecouldtherebyhaveunderstoodwhatthewordbeweegingesignified，orhaveguessedwhatideaaDutchmanordinarilyhadinhismind，andwouldsignifytoanother，whenheusedthatsound？
9。Moderndefinitionsofmotion。Norhavethemodernphilosophers，whohaveendeavouredtothrowoffthejargonoftheschools，andspeakintelligibly，muchbettersucceededindefiningsimpleideas，whetherbyexplainingtheircauses，oranyotherwise。Theatomists，whodefinemotiontobe\"apassagefromoneplacetoanother，\"whatdotheymorethanputonesynonymouswordforanother？Forwhatispassageotherthanmotion？Andiftheywereaskedwhatpassagewas，howwouldtheybetterdefineitthanbymotion？Forisitnotatleastasproperandsignificanttosay，Passageisamotionfromoneplacetoanother，astosay，Motionisapassage，&c。？Thisistotranslate，andnottodefine，whenwechangetwowordsofthesamesignificationoneforanother；which，whenoneisbetterunderstoodthantheother，mayservetodiscoverwhatideatheunknownstandsfor；butisveryfarfromadefinition，unlesswewillsayeveryEnglishwordinthedictionaryisthedefinitionoftheLatinworditanswers，andthatmotionisadefinitionofmotus。Norwillthe\"successiveapplicationofthepartsofthesuperficiesofonebodytothoseofanother，\"whichtheCartesiansgiveus，proveamuchbetterdefinitionofmotion，whenwellexamined。
10。Definitionsoflight。\"Theactofperspicuous，asfarforthasperspicuous，\"isanotherPeripateticdefinitionofasimpleidea；
which，thoughnotmoreabsurdthantheformerofmotion，yetbetraysitsuselessnessandinsignificancymoreplainly；becauseexperiencewilleasilyconvinceanyonethatitcannotmakethemeaningofthewordlight(whichitpretendstodefine)atallunderstoodbyablindman，butthedefinitionofmotionappearsnotatfirstsightsouseless，becauseitescapesthiswayoftrial。Forthissimpleidea，enteringbythetouchaswellassight，itisimpossibletoshowanexampleofanyonewhohasnootherwaytogettheideaofmotion，butbarelybythedefinitionofthatname。Thosewhotellusthatlightisagreatnumberoflittleglobules，strikingbrisklyonthebottomoftheeye，speakmoreintelligiblythantheSchools:butyetthesewordsneversowellunderstoodwouldmaketheideathewordlightstandsfornomoreknowntoamanthatunderstandsitnotbefore，thanifoneshouldtellhimthatlightwasnothingbutacompanyoflittletennis-balls，whichfairiesalldaylongstruckwithracketsagainstsomemen’sforeheads，whilsttheypassedbyothers。
Forgrantingthisexplicationofthethingtobetrue，yettheideaofthecauseoflight，ifwehaditneversoexact，wouldnomoregiveustheideaoflightitself，asitissuchaparticularperceptioninus，thantheideaofthefigureandmotionofasharppieceofsteelwouldgiveustheideaofthatpainwhichitisabletocauseinus。Forthecauseofanysensation，andthesensationitself，inallthesimpleideasofonesense，aretwoideas；andtwoideassodifferentanddistantonefromanother，thatnotwocanbemoreso。Andtherefore，shouldDescartes’sglobulesstrikeneversolongontheretinaofamanwhowasblindbyaguttaserena，hewouldtherebyneverhaveanyideaoflight，oranythingapproachingit，thoughheunderstoodneversowellwhatlittleglobuleswere，andwhatstrikingonanotherbodywas。AndthereforetheCartesiansverywelldistinguishbetweenthatlightwhichisthecauseofthatsensationinus，andtheideawhichisproducedinusbyit，andisthatwhichisproperlylight。
11。Simpleideas，whyundefinable，furtherexplained。Simpleideas，ashasbeenshown，areonlytobegotbythoseimpressionsobjectsthemselvesmakeonourminds，bytheproperinletsappointedtoeachsort。Iftheyarenotreceivedthisway，allthewordsintheworld，madeuseoftoexplainordefineanyoftheirnames，willneverbeabletoproduceinustheideaitstandsfor。For，wordsbeingsounds，canproduceinusnoothersimpleideasthanofthoseverysounds；norexciteanyinus，butbythatvoluntaryconnexionwhichisknowntobebetweenthemandthosesimpleideaswhichcommonusehasmadethemthesignsof。Hethatthinksotherwise，lethimtryifanywordscangivehimthetasteofapine-apple，andmakehimhavethetrueideaoftherelishofthatcelebrateddeliciousfruit。Sofarasheistoldithasaresemblancewithanytasteswhereofhehastheideasalreadyinhismemory，imprintedtherebysensibleobjects，notstrangerstohispalate，sofarmayheapproachthatresemblanceinhismind。Butthisisnotgivingusthatideabyadefinition，butexcitinginusothersimpleideasbytheirknownnames；whichwillbestillverydifferentfromthetruetasteofthatfruititself。Inlightandcolours，andallothersimpleideas，itisthesamething:forthesignificationofsoundsisnotnatural，butonlyimposedandarbitrary。Andnodefinitionoflightorrednessismorefittedorabletoproduceeitherofthoseideasinus，thanthesoundlightorred，byitself。For，tohopetoproduceanideaoflightorcolourbyasound，howeverformed，istoexpectthatsoundsshouldbevisible，orcoloursaudible；andtomaketheearsdotheofficeofalltheothersenses。Whichisalloneastosay，thatwemighttaste，smell，andseebytheears:asortofphilosophyworthyonlyofSanchoPanza，whohadthefacultytoseeDulcineabyhearsay。Andthereforehethathasnotbeforereceivedintohismind，bytheproperinlet，thesimpleideawhichanywordstandsfor，cannevercometoknowthesignificationofthatwordbyanyotherwordsorsoundswhatsoever，puttogetheraccordingtoanyrulesofdefinition。Theonlywayis，byapplyingtohissensestheproperobject；andsoproducingthatideainhim，forwhichhehaslearnedthenamealready。Astudiousblindman，whohadmightilybeathisheadaboutvisibleobjects，andmadeuseoftheexplicationofhisbooksandfriends，tounderstandthosenamesoflightandcolourswhichoftencameinhisway，braggedoneday，Thathenowunderstoodwhatscarletsignified。Uponwhich，hisfrienddemandingwhatscarletwas？Theblindmananswered，Itwaslikethesoundofatrumpet。Justsuchanunderstandingofthenameofanyothersimpleideawillhehave，whohopestogetitonlyfromadefinition，orotherwordsmadeuseoftoexplainit。
12。Thecontraryshownincomplexideas，byinstancesofastatueandrainbow。Thecaseisquiteotherwiseincomplexideas；which，consistingofseveralsimpleones，itisinthepowerofwords，standingfortheseveralideasthatmakethatcomposition，toimprintcomplexideasinthemindwhichwerenevertherebefore，andsomaketheirnamesbeunderstood。Insuchcollectionsofideas，passingunderonename，definition，ortheteachingthesignificationofonewordbyseveralothers，hasplace，andmaymakeusunderstandthenamesofthingswhichnevercamewithinthereachofoursenses；andframeideassuitabletothoseinothermen’sminds，whentheyusethosenames:providedthatnoneofthetermsofthedefinitionstandforanysuchsimpleideas，whichhetowhomtheexplicationismadehasneveryethadinhisthought。Thusthewordstatuemaybeexplainedtoablindmanbyotherwords，whenpicturecannot；hissenseshavinggivenhimtheideaoffigure，butnotofcolours，whichthereforewordscannotexciteinhim。Thisgainedtheprizetothepainteragainstthestatuary:eachofwhichcontendingfortheexcellencyofhisart，andthestatuarybraggingthathiswastobepreferred，becauseitreachedfurther，andeventhosewhohadlosttheireyescouldyetperceivetheexcellencyofit。Thepainteragreedtoreferhimselftothejudgmentofablindman；whobeingbroughtwheretherewasastatuemadebytheone，andapicturedrawnbytheother；hewasfirstledtothestatue，inwhichhetracedwithhishandsallthelineamentsofthefaceandbody，andwithgreatadmirationapplaudedtheskilloftheworkman。Butbeingledtothepicture，andhavinghishandslaiduponit，wastold，thatnowhetouchedthehead，andthentheforehead，eyes，nose，&c。，ashishandmovedoverthepartsofthepictureonthecloth，withoutfindinganytheleastdistinction:whereuponhecriedout，thatcertainlythatmustneedsbeaveryadmirableanddivinepieceofworkmanship，whichcouldrepresenttothemallthoseparts，wherehecouldneitherfeelnorperceiveanything。
13。Coloursindefinabletotheborn-blind。Hethatshouldusethewordrainbowtoonewhoknewallthosecolours，butyethadneverseenthatphenomenon，would，byenumeratingthefigure，largeness，position，andorderofthecolours，sowelldefinethatwordthatitmightbeperfectlyunderstood。Butyetthatdefinition，howexactandperfectsoever，wouldnevermakeablindmanunderstandit；
becauseseveralofthesimpleideasthatmakethatcomplexone，beingsuchasheneverreceivedbysensationandexperience，nowordsareabletoexcitetheminhismind。
14。Complexideasdefinableonlywhenthesimpleideasofwhichtheyconsisthavebeengotfromexperience。Simpleideas，ashasbeenshown，canonlybegotbyexperiencefromthoseobjectswhicharepropertoproduceinusthoseperceptions。When，bythismeans，wehaveourmindsstoredwiththem，andknowthenamesforthem，thenweareinaconditiontodefine，andbydefinitiontounderstand，thenamesofcomplexideasthataremadeupofthem。Butwhenanytermstandsforasimpleideathatamanhasneveryethadinhismind，itisimpossiblebyanywordstomakeknownitsmeaningtohim。Whenanytermstandsforanideaamanisacquaintedwith，butisignorantthatthattermisthesignofit，thenanothernameofthesameidea，whichhehasbeenaccustomedto，maymakehimunderstanditsmeaning。Butinnocasewhatsoeverisanynameofanysimpleideacapableofadefinition。
15。Namesofsimpleideasoflessdoubtfulmeaningthanthoseofmixedmodesandsubstances。Fourthly，Butthoughthenamesofsimpleideashavenotthehelpofdefinitiontodeterminetheirsignification，yetthathindersnotbutthattheyaregenerallylessdoubtfulanduncertainthanthoseofmixedmodesandsubstances；
becausethey，standingonlyforonesimpleperception，menforthemostparteasilyandperfectlyagreeintheirsignification；andthereislittleroomformistakeandwranglingabouttheirmeaning。Hethatknowsoncethatwhitenessisthenameofthatcolourhehasobservedinsnowormilk，willnotbeapttomisapplythatword，aslongasheretainsthatidea；whichwhenhehasquitelost，heisnotapttomistakethemeaningofit，butperceivesheunderstandsitnot。Thereisneitheramultiplicityofsimpleideastobeputtogether，whichmakesthedoubtfulnessinthenamesofmixedmodes；
norasupposed，butanunknown，realessence，withpropertiesdependingthereon，theprecisenumberwhereofisalsounknown，whichmakesthedifficultyinthenamesofsubstances。But，onthecontrary，insimpleideasthewholesignificationofthenameisknownatonce，andconsistsnotofparts，whereofmoreorlessbeingputin，theideamaybevaried，andsothesignificationofnamebeobscure，oruncertain。
16。Simpleideashavefewascentsinlineapraedicamentali。Fifthly，Thisfurthermaybeobservedconcerningsimpleideasandtheirnames，thattheyhavebutfewascentsinlineapraedicamentali，(astheycallit，)fromthelowestspeciestothesummumgenus。Thereasonwhereofis，thatthelowestspeciesbeingbutonesimpleidea，nothingcanbeleftoutofit，thatsothedifferencebeingtakenaway，itmayagreewithsomeotherthinginoneideacommontothemboth；which，havingonename，isthegenusoftheothertwo:v。g。thereisnothingthatcanbeleftoutoftheideaofwhiteandredtomakethemagreeinonecommonappearance，andsohaveonegeneralname；asrationalitybeingleftoutofthecomplexideaofman，makesitagreewithbruteinthemoregeneralideaandnameofanimal。Andthereforewhen，toavoidunpleasantenumerations，menwouldcomprehendbothwhiteandred，andseveralothersuchsimpleideas，underonegeneralname，theyhavebeenfaintodoitbyawordwhichdenotesonlythewaytheygetintothemind。Forwhenwhite，red，andyellowareallcomprehendedunderthegenusornamecolour，itsignifiesnomorebutsuchideasasareproducedinthemindonlybythesight，andhaveentranceonlythroughtheeyes。Andwhentheywouldframeyetamoregeneraltermtocomprehendbothcoloursandsounds，andthelikesimpleideas，theydoitbyawordthatsignifiesallsuchascomeintothemindonlybyonesense。Andsothegeneraltermquality，initsordinaryacceptation，comprehendscolours，sounds，tastes，smells，andtangiblequalities，withdistinctionfromextension，number，motion，pleasure，andpain，whichmakeimpressionsonthemindandintroducetheirideasbymoresensesthanone。
17。Namesofsimpleideasnotarbitrary，butperfectlytakenfromtheexistenceofthings。Sixthly，Thenamesofsimpleideas，substances，andmixedmodeshavealsothisdifference:thatthoseofmixedmodesstandforideasperfectlyarbitrary；thoseofsubstancesarenotperfectlyso，butrefertoapattern，thoughwithsomelatitude；andthoseofsimpleideasareperfectlytakenfromtheexistenceofthings，andarenotarbitraryatan。Which，whatdifferenceitmakesinthesignificationsoftheirnames，weshallseeinthefollowingchapters。
Simplemodes。Thenamesofsimplemodesdifferlittlefromthoseofsimpleideas。
ChapterV
OftheNamesofMixedModesandRelations1。Mixedmodesstandforabstractideas，asothergeneralnames。Thenamesofmixedmodes，beinggeneral，theystand，ashasbeenshewed，forsortsorspeciesofthings，eachofwhichhasitspeculiaressence。Theessencesofthesespeciesalso，ashasbeenshewed，arenothingbuttheabstractideasinthemind，towhichthenameisannexed。Thusfarthenamesandessencesofmixedmodeshavenothingbutwhatiscommontothemwithotherideas:butifwetakealittlenearersurveyofthem，weshallfindthattheyhavesomethingpeculiar，whichperhapsmaydeserveourattention。
2。First，Theabstractideastheystandforaremadebytheunderstanding。ThefirstparticularityIshallobserveinthem，is，thattheabstractideas，or，ifyouplease，theessences，oftheseveralspeciesofmixedmodes，aremadebytheunderstanding，whereintheydifferfromthoseofsimpleideas:inwhichsortthemindhasnopowertomakeanyone，butonlyreceivessuchasarepresentedtoitbytherealexistenceofthingsoperatinguponit。
3。Secondly，madearbitrarily，andwithoutpatterns。Inthenextplace，theseessencesofthespeciesofmixedmodesarenotonlymadebythemind，butmadeveryarbitrarily，madewithoutpatterns，orreferencetoanyrealexistence。Whereintheydifferfromthoseofsubstances，whichcarrywiththemthesuppositionofsomerealbeing，fromwhichtheyaretaken，andtowhichtheyarecomformable。
But，initscomplexideasofmixedmodes，themindtakesalibertynottofollowtheexistenceofthingsexactly。Itunitesandretainscertaincollections，assomanydistinctspecificideas；whilstothers，thatasoftenoccurinnature，andareasplainlysuggestedbyoutwardthings，passneglected，withoutparticularnamesorspecifications。Nordoesthemind，intheseofmixedmodes，asinthecomplexideaofsubstances，examinethembytherealexistenceofthings；orverifythembypatternscontainingsuchpeculiarcompositionsinnature。Toknowwhetherhisideaofadulteryorincestberight，willamanseekitanywhereamongstthingsexisting？Orisittruebecauseanyonehasbeenwitnesstosuchanaction？No:butitsufficeshere，thatmenhaveputtogethersuchacollectionintoonecomplexidea，thatmakesthearchetypeandspecificidea，whethereveranysuchactionwerecommittedinrerumnaturaorno。
4。Howthisisdone。Tounderstandthisright，wemustconsiderwhereinthismakingofthesecomplexideasconsists；andthatisnotinthemakinganynewidea，butputtingtogetherthosewhichthemindhadbefore。Whereintheminddoesthesethreethings:First，Itchoosesacertainnumber；Secondly，Itgivesthemconnexion，andmakesthemintooneidea；Thirdly，Ittiesthemtogetherbyaname。Ifweexaminehowthemindproceedsinthese，andwhatlibertyittakesinthem，weshalleasilyobservehowtheseessencesofthespeciesofmixedmodesaretheworkmanshipofthemind；and，consequently，thatthespeciesthemselvesareofmen’smaking。Evidentlyarbitrary，inthattheideaisoftenbeforetheexistence。Nobodycandoubtbutthattheseideasofmixedmodesaremadebyavoluntarycollectionofideas，puttogetherinthemind，independentfromanyoriginalpatternsinnature，whowillbutreflectthatthissortofcomplexideasmaybemade，abstracted，andhavenamesgiventhem，andsoaspeciesbeconstituted，beforeanyoneindividualofthatspecieseverexisted。Whocandoubtbuttheideasofsacrilegeoradulterymightbeframedinthemindsofmen，andhavenamesgiventhem，andsothesespeciesofmixedmodesbeconstituted，beforeeitherofthemwasevercommitted；andmightbeaswelldiscoursedofandreasonedabout，andascertaintruthsdiscoveredofthem，whilstyettheyhadnobeingbutintheunderstanding，aswellasnow，thattheyhavebuttoofrequentlyarealexistence？Wherebyitisplainhowmuchthesortsofmixedmodesarethecreaturesoftheunderstanding，wheretheyhaveabeingassubservienttoalltheendsofrealtruthandknowledge，aswhentheyreallyexist。Andwecannotdoubtbutlaw-makershaveoftenmadelawsaboutspeciesofactionswhichwereonlythecreaturesoftheirownunderstandings；beingsthathadnootherexistencebutintheirownminds。AndIthinknobodycandenybutthattheresurrectionwasaspeciesofmixedmodesinthemind，beforeitreallyexisted。
6。Instances:murder，incest，stabbing。Toseehowarbitrarilytheseessencesofmixedmodesaremadebythemind，weneedbuttakeaviewofalmostanyofthem。Alittlelookingintothemwillsatisfyus，thatitisthemindthatcombinesseveralscatteredindependentideasintoonecomplexone；and，bythecommonnameitgivesthem，makesthemtheessenceofacertainspecies，withoutregulatingitselfbyanyconnexiontheyhaveinnature。Forwhatgreaterconnexioninnaturehastheideaofamanthantheideaofasheepwithkilling，thatthisismadeaparticularspeciesofaction，signifiedbythewordmurder，andtheothernot？Orwhatunionisthereinnaturebetweentheideaoftherelationofafatherwithkillingthanthatofasonorneighbour，thatthosearecombinedintoonecomplexidea，andtherebymadetheessenceofthedistinctspeciesparricide，whilsttheothermakesnodistinctspeciesatall？But，thoughtheyhavemadekillingaman’sfatherormotheradistinctspeciesfromkillinghissonordaughter，yet，insomeothercases，sonanddaughteraretakenintoo，aswellasfatherandmother:andtheyareallequallycomprehendedinthesamespecies，asinthatofincest。Thusthemindinmixedmodesarbitrarilyunitesintocomplexideassuchasitfindsconvenient；whilstothersthathavealtogetherasmuchunioninnatureareleftloose，andnevercombinedintooneidea，becausetheyhavenoneedofonename。Itisevidentthenthatthemind，byitsfreechoice，givesaconnexiontoacertainnumberofideas，whichinnaturehavenomoreunionwithoneanotherthanothersthatitleavesout:whyelseisthepartoftheweaponthebeginningofthewoundismadewithtakennoticeof，tomakethedistinctspeciescalledstabbing，andthefigureandmatteroftheweaponleftout？I
donotsaythisisdonewithoutreason，asweshallseemorebyandby；butthisIsay，thatitisdonebythefreechoiceofthemind，pursuingitsownends；andthat，therefore，thesespeciesofmixedmodesaretheworkmanshipoftheunderstanding。Andthereisnothingmoreevidentthanthat，forthemostpart，intheframingoftheseideas，themindsearchesnotitspatternsinnature，norreferstheideasitmakestotherealexistenceofthings，butputssuchtogetherasmaybestserveitsownpurposes，withouttyingitselftoapreciseimitationofanythingthatreallyexists。
7。Butstillsubservienttotheendoflanguage，andnotmadeatrandom。But，thoughthesecomplexideasoressencesofmixedmodesdependonthemind，andaremadebyitwithgreatliberty，yettheyarenotmadeatrandom，andjumbledtogetherwithoutanyreasonatall。Thoughthesecomplexideasbenotalwayscopiedfromnature，yettheyarealwayssuitedtotheendforwhichabstractideasaremade:andthoughtheybecombinationsmadeofideasthatarelooseenough，andhaveaslittleunioninthemselvesasseveralotherstowhichthemindnevergivesaconnexionthatcombinesthemintooneidea；yettheyarealwaysmadefortheconvenienceofcommunication，whichisthechiefendoflanguage。Theuseoflanguageis，byshortsounds，tosignifywitheaseanddispatchgeneralconceptions；whereinnotonlyabundanceofparticularsmaybecontained，butalsoagreatvarietyofindependentideascollectedintoonecomplexone。Inthemakingthereforeofthespeciesofmixedmodes，menhavehadregardonlytosuchcombinationsastheyhadoccasiontomentiononetoanother。Thosetheyhavecombinedintodistinctcomplexideas，andgivennamesto；whilstothers，thatinnaturehaveasnearaunion，areleftlooseandunregarded。For，togonofurtherthanhumanactionsthemselves，iftheywouldmakedistinctabstractideasofallthevarietieswhichmightbeobservedinthem，thenumbermustbeinfinite，andthememoryconfoundedwiththeplenty，aswellasoverchargedtolittlepurpose。Itsufficesthatmenmakeandnamesomanycomplexideasofthesemixedmodesastheyfindtheyhaveoccasiontohavenamesfor，intheordinaryoccurrenceoftheiraffairs。Iftheyjointotheideaofkillingtheideaoffatherormother，andsomakeadistinctspeciesfromkillingaman’ssonorneighbour，itisbecauseofthedifferentheinousnessofthecrime，andthedistinctpunishmentis，duetothemurderingaman’sfatherandmother，differenttowhatoughttobeinflictedonthemurdererofasonorneighbour；andthereforetheyfinditnecessarytomentionitbyadistinctname，whichistheendofmakingthatdistinctcombination。Butthoughtheideasofmotheranddaughteraresodifferentlytreated，inreferencetotheideaofkilling，thattheoneisjoinedwithittomakeadistinctabstractideawithaname，andsoadistinctspecies，andtheothernot；yet，inrespectofcarnalknowledge，theyarebothtakeninunderincest:andthatstillforthesameconvenienceofexpressingunderonename，andreckoningofonespecies，suchuncleanmixturesashaveapeculiarturpitudebeyondothers；andthistoavoidcircumlocutionsandtediousdescriptions。
8。Whereoftheintranslatablewordsofdiverslanguagesareaproof。
Amoderateskillindifferentlanguageswilleasilysatisfyoneofthetruthofthis，itbeingsoobvioustoobservegreatstoreofwordsinonelanguagewhichhavenotanythatanswertheminanother。
Whichplainlyshowsthatthoseofonecountry，bytheircustomsandmanneroflife，havefoundoccasiontomakeseveralcomplexideas，andgivennamestothem，whichothersnevercollectedintospecificideas。
Thiscouldnothavehappenedifthesespecieswerethesteadyworkmanshipofnature，andnotcollectionsmadeandabstractedbythemind，inordertonaming，andfortheconvenienceofcommunication。Thetermsofourlaw，whicharenotemptysounds，willhardlyfindwordsthatanswerthemintheSpanishorItalian，noscantylanguages；muchless，Ithink，couldanyonetranslatethemintotheCaribbeeorWestoetongues:andtheversuraoftheRomans，orcorbanoftheJews，havenowordsinotherlanguagestoanswerthem；thereasonwhereofisplain，fromwhathasbeensaid。
Nay，ifwelookalittlemorenearlyintothismatter，andexactlycomparedifferentlanguages，weshallfindthat，thoughtheyhavewordswhichintranslationsanddictionariesaresupposedtoansweroneanother，yetthereisscarceoneoftenamongstthenamesofcomplexideas，especiallyofmixedmodes，thatstandsforthesamepreciseideawhichtheworddoesthatindictionariesitisrenderedby。Therearenoideasmorecommonandlesscompoundedthanthemeasuresoftime，extensionandweight；andtheLatinnames，hora，pes，libra，arewithoutdifficultyrenderedbytheEnglishnames，hour，foot，andpound:butyetthereisnothingmoreevidentthanthattheideasaRomanannexedtotheseLatinnames，wereveryfardifferentfromthosewhichanEnglishmanexpressesbythoseEnglishones。Andifeitheroftheseshouldmakeuseofthemeasuresthatthoseoftheotherlanguagedesignedbytheirnames，hewouldbequiteoutinhisaccount。Thesearetoosensibleproofstobedoubted；andweshallfindthismuchmoresointhenamesofmoreabstractandcompoundedideas，suchasarethegreatestpartofthosewhichmakeupmoraldiscourses:whosenames，whenmencomecuriouslytocomparewiththosetheyaretranslatedinto，inotherlanguages，theywillfindveryfewofthemexactlytocorrespondinthewholeextentoftheirsignifications。
9。Thisshowsspeciestobemadeforcommunication。ThereasonwhyI
takesoparticularnoticeofthisis，thatwemaynotbemistakenaboutgeneraandspecies，andtheiressences，asiftheywerethingsregularlyandconstantlymadebynature，andhadarealexistenceinthings；whentheyappear，uponamorewarysurvey，tobenothingelsebutanartificeoftheunderstanding，fortheeasiersignifyingsuchcollectionsofideasasitshouldoftenhaveoccasiontocommunicatebyonegeneralterm；underwhichdiversparticulars，asfarforthastheyagreedtothatabstractidea，mightbecomprehended。
Andifthedoubtfulsignificationofthewordspeciesmaymakeitsoundharshtosome，thatIsaythespeciesofmixedmodesare\"madebytheunderstanding\"；yet，Ithink，itcanbynobodybedeniedthatitisthemindmakesthoseabstractcomplexideastowhichspecificnamesaregiven。Andifitbetrue，asitis，thatthemindmakesthepatternsforsortingandnamingofthings，Ileaveittobeconsideredwhomakestheboundariesofthesortorspecies；sincewithmespeciesandsorthavenootherdifferencethanthatofaLatinandEnglishidiom。
10。Inmixedmodesitisthenamethattiesthecombinationofsimpleideastogether，andmakesitaspecies。Thenearrelationthatthereisbetweenspecies，essences，andtheirgeneralname，atleastinmixedmodes，willfurtherappearwhenweconsider，thatitisthenamethatseemstopreservethoseessences，andgivethemtheirlastingduration。For，theconnexionbetweentheloosepartsofthosecomplexideasbeingmadebythemind，thisunion，whichhasnoparticularfoundationinnature，wouldceaseagain，weretherenotsomethingthatdid，asitwere，holdittogether，andkeepthepartsfromscattering。Thoughthereforeitbethemindthatmakesthecollection，itisthenamewhichisasitweretheknotthattiesthemfasttogether。Whatavastvarietyofdifferentideasdoesthewordtriumphusholdtogether，anddelivertousasonespecies！Hadthisnamebeennevermade，orquitelost，wemight，nodoubt，havehaddescriptionsofwhatpassedinthatsolemnity:butyet，Ithink，thatwhichholdsthosedifferentpartstogether，intheunityofonecomplexidea，isthatverywordannexedtoit；withoutwhichtheseveralpartsofthatwouldnomorebethoughttomakeonething，thananyothershow，whichhavingneverbeenmadebutonce，hadneverbeenunitedintoonecomplexidea，underonedenomination。Howmuch，therefore，inmixedmodes，theunitynecessarytoanyessencedependsonthemind；andhowmuchthecontinuationandfixingofthatunitydependsonthenameincommonuseannexedtoit，Ileavetobeconsideredbythosewholookuponessencesandspeciesasrealestablishedthingsinnature。
11。Suitabletothis，wefindthatmenspeakingofmixedmodes，seldomimagineortakeanyotherforspeciesofthem，butsuchasaresetoutbyname:becausethey，beingofman’smakingonly，inordertonaming，nosuchspeciesaretakennoticeof，orsupposedtobe，unlessanamebejoinedtoit，asthesignofman’shavingcombinedintooneideaseverallooseones；andbythatnamegivingalastinguniontothepartswhichwouldotherwiseceasetohaveany，assoonasthemindlaidbythatabstractidea，andceasedactuallytothinkonit。Butwhenanameisonceannexedtoit，whereinthepartsofthatcomplexideahaveasettledandpermanentunion，thenistheessence，asitwere，established，andthespecieslookedonascomplete。Fortowhatpurposeshouldthememorychargeitselfwithsuchcompositions，unlessitwerebyabstractiontomakethemgeneral？
Andtowhatpurposemakethemgeneral，unlessitwerethattheymighthavegeneralnamesfortheconvenienceofdiscourseandcommunication？Thuswesee，thatkillingamanwithaswordorahatchetarelookedonasnodistinctspeciesofaction；butifthepointoftheswordfirstenterthebody，itpassesforadistinctspecies，whereithasadistinctname，asinEngland，inwhoselanguageitiscalledstabbing:butinanothercountry，whereithasnothappenedtobespecifiedunderapeculiarname，itpassesnotforadistinctspecies。Butinthespeciesofcorporealsubstances，thoughitbethemindthatmakesthenominalessence，yet，sincethoseideaswhicharecombinedinitaresupposedtohaveanunioninnaturewhetherthemindjoinsthemornot，thereforethosearelookedonasdistinctspecies，withoutanyoperationofthemind，eitherabstracting，orgivinganametothatcomplexidea。
12。Fortheoriginalsofourmixedmodes，welooknofurtherthanthemind；whichalsoshowsthemtohetheworkmanshipoftheunderstanding。Conformablealsotowhathasbeensaidconcerningtheessencesofthespeciesofmixedmodes，thattheyarethecreaturesoftheunderstandingratherthantheworksofnature；conformable，Isay，tothis，wefindthattheirnamesleadourthoughtstothemind，andnofurther。Whenwespeakofjustice，orgratitude，weframetoourselvesnoimaginationofanythingexisting，whichwewouldconceive；butourthoughtsterminateintheabstractideasofthosevirtues，andlooknotfurther；astheydowhenwespeakofahorse，oriron，whosespecificideasweconsidernotasbarelyinthemind，butasinthingsthemselves，whichaffordtheoriginalpatternsofthoseideas。Butinmixedmodes，atleastthemostconsiderablepartsofthem，whicharemoralbeings，weconsidertheoriginalpatternsasbeinginthemind，andtothosewereferforthedistinguishingofparticularbeingsundernames。AndhenceIthinkitisthattheseessencesofthespeciesofmixedmodesarebyamoreparticularnamecallednotions；as，byapeculiarright，appertainingtotheunderstanding。
13。Theirbeingmadebytheunderstandingwithoutpatterns，showsthereasonwhytheyaresocompounded。Hence，likewise，wemaylearnwhythecomplexideasofmixedmodesarecommonlymorecompoundedanddecompoundedthanthoseofnaturalsubstances。Becausetheybeingtheworkmanshipoftheunderstanding，pursuingonlyitsownends，andtheconveniencyofexpressinginshortthoseideasitwouldmakeknowntoanother，itdoeswithgreatlibertyuniteoftenintooneabstractideathingsthat，intheirnature，havenocoherence；andsounderonetermbundletogetheragreatvarietyofcompoundedanddecompoundedideas。Thusthenameofprocession:whatagreatmixtureofindependentideasofpersons，habits，tapers，orders，motions，sounds，doesitcontaininthatcomplexone，whichthemindofmanhasarbitrarilyputtogether，toexpressbythatonename？
Whereasthecomplexideasofthesortsofsubstancesareusuallymadeupofonlyasmallnumberofsimpleones；andinthespeciesofanimals，thesetwo，viz。shapeandvoice，commonlymakethewholenominalessence。
14。Namesofmixedmodesstandalwaysfortheirrealessences，whicharetheworkmanshipofourminds。Anotherthingwemayobservefromwhathasbeensaidis，Thatthenamesofmixedmodesalwayssignify(whentheyhaveanydeterminedsignification)therealessencesoftheirspecies。For，theseabstractideasbeingtheworkmanshipofthemind，andnotreferredtotherealexistenceofthings，thereisnosuppositionofanythingmoresignifiedbythatname，butbarelythatcomplexideatheminditselfhasformed；whichisallitwouldhaveexpressedbyit；andisthatonwhichallthepropertiesofthespeciesdepend，andfromwhichalonetheyallflow:andsointhesetherealandnominalessenceisthesame；which，ofwhatconcernmentitistothecertainknowledgeofgeneraltruth，weshallseehereafter。
15。Whytheirnamesareusuallygotbeforetheirideas。Thisalsomayshowusthereasonwhyforthemostpartthenamesoffixedmodesaregotbeforetheideastheystandforareperfectlyknown。
Becausetherebeingnospeciesoftheseordinarilytakennoticeofbutwhathavenames，andthosespecies，orrathertheiressences，beingabstractcomplexideas，madearbitrarilybythemind，itisconvenient，ifnotnecessary，toknowthenames，beforeoneendeavourtoframethesecomplexideas:unlessamanwillfillhisheadwithacompanyofabstractcomplexideas，which，othershavingnonamesfor，hehasnothingtodowith，buttolaybyandforgetagain。Iconfessthat，inthebeginningoflanguages，itwasnecessarytohavetheideabeforeonegaveitthename:andsoitisstill，where，makinganewcomplexidea，onealso，bygivingitanewname，makesanewword。Butthisconcernsnotlanguagesmade，whichhavegenerallyprettywellprovidedforideaswhichmenhavefrequentoccasiontohaveandcommunicate；andinsuch，Iaskwhetheritbenottheordinarymethod，thatchildrenlearnthenamesofmixedmodesbeforetheyhavetheirideas？Whatoneofathousandeverframestheabstractideasofgloryandambition，beforehehasheardthenamesofthem？InsimpleideasandsubstancesIgrantitisotherwise，which，beingsuchideasashavearealexistenceandunioninnature，theideasandnamesaregotonebeforetheother，asithappens。
16。Reasonofmybeingsolargeonthissubject。Whathasbeensaidhereofmixedmodesis，withverylittledifference，applicablealsotorelations；which，sinceeverymanhimselfmayobserve，Imaysparemyselfthepainstoenlargeon:especially，sincewhatIhaveheresaidconcerningWordsinthisthirdBook，willpossiblybethoughtbysometobemuchmorethanwhatsoslightasubjectrequired。Iallowitmightbebroughtintoanarrowercompass；butI
waswillingtostaymyreaderonanargumentthatappearstomenewandalittleoutoftheway，(IamsureitisoneIthoughtnotofwhenIbegantowrite，)that，bysearchingittothebottom，andturningitoneveryside，somepartorothermightmeetwitheveryone’sthoughts，andgiveoccasiontothemostaverseornegligenttoreflectonageneralmiscarriage，which，thoughofgreatconsequence，islittletakennoticeof。Whenitisconsideredwhatapudderismadeaboutessences，andhowmuchallsortsofknowledge，discourse，andconversationarepesteredanddisorderedbythecarelessandconfuseduseandapplicationofwords，itwillperhapsbethoughtworthwhilethoroughlytolayitopen。AndIshallbepardonedifIhavedweltlongonanargumentwhichIthink，therefore，needstobeinculcated，becausethefaultsmenareusuallyguiltyofinthiskind，arenotonlythegreatesthindrancesoftrueknowledge，butaresowellthoughtofastopassforit。Menwouldoftenseewhatasmallpittanceofreasonandtruth，orpossiblynoneatall，ismixedwiththosehuffingopinionstheyareswelledwith；iftheywouldbutlookbeyondfashionablesounds，andobservewhatideasareorarenotcomprehendedunderthosewordswithwhichtheyaresoarmedatallpoints，andwithwhichtheysoconfidentlylayaboutthem。IshallimagineIhavedonesomeservicetotruth，peace，andlearning，if，byanyenlargementonthissubject，Icanmakemenreflectontheirownuseoflanguage；andgivethemreasontosuspect，that，sinceitisfrequentforothers，itmayalsobepossibleforthem，tohavesometimesverygoodandapprovedwordsintheirmouthsandwritings，withveryuncertain，little，ornosignification。Andthereforeitisnotunreasonableforthemtobewaryhereinthemselves，andnottobeunwillingtohavethemexaminedbyothers。Withthisdesign，therefore，IshallgoonwithwhatIhavefurthertosayconcerningthismatter。
ChapterVI
OftheNamesofSubstances1。Thecommonnamesofsubstancesstandforsorts。Thecommonnamesofsubstances，aswellasothergeneralterms，standforsorts:whichisnothingelsebutthebeingmadesignsofsuchcomplexideaswhereinseveralparticularsubstancesdoormightagree，byvirtueofwhichtheyarecapableofbeingcomprehendedinonecommonconception，andsignifiedbyonename。Isaydoormightagree:
forthoughtherebebutonesunexistingintheworld，yettheideaofitbeingabstracted，sothatmoresubstances(iftherewereseveral)
mighteachagreeinit，itisasmuchasortasiftherewereasmanysunsastherearestars。Theywantnottheirreasonswhothinkthereare，andthateachfixedstarwouldanswertheideathenamesunstandsfor，toonewhowasplacedinaduedistance:which，bytheway，mayshowushowmuchthesorts，or，ifyouplease，generaandspeciesofthings(forthoseLatintermssignifytomenomorethantheEnglishwordsort)dependonsuchcollectionsofideasasmenhavemade，andnotontherealnatureofthings；sinceitisnotimpossiblebutthat，inproprietyofspeech，thatmightbeasuntoonewhichisastartoanother。
2。Theessenceofeachsortofsubstanceisourabstractideatowhichthenameisannexed。Themeasureandboundaryofeachsortorspecies，wherebyitisconstitutedthatparticularsort，anddistinguishedfromothers，isthatwecallitsessence，whichisnothingbutthatabstractideatowhichthenameisannexed；sothateverythingcontainedinthatideaisessentialtothatsort。This，thoughitbealltheessenceofnaturalsubstancesthatweknow，orbywhichwedistinguishthemintosorts，yetIcallitbyapeculiarname，thenominalessence，todistinguishitfromtherealconstitutionofsubstances，uponwhichdependsthisnominalessence，andallthepropertiesofthatsort；which，therefore，ashasbeensaid，maybecalledtherealessence:v。g。thenominalessenceofgoldisthatcomplexideathewordgoldstandsfor，letitbe，forinstance，abodyyellow，ofacertainweight，malleable，fusible，andfixed。Buttherealessenceistheconstitutionoftheinsensiblepartsofthatbody，onwhichthosequalitiesandalltheotherpropertiesofgolddepend。Howfarthesetwoaredifferent，thoughtheyarebothcalledessence，isobviousatfirstsighttodiscover。
3。Thenominalandrealessencedifferent。For，thoughperhapsvoluntarymotion，withsenseandreason，joinedtoabodyofacertainshape，bethecomplexideatowhichIandothersannexthenameman，andsobethenominalessenceofthespeciessocalled:yetnobodywillsaythatcomplexideaistherealessenceandsourceofallthoseoperationswhicharetobefoundinanyindividualofthatsort。Thefoundationofallthosequalitieswhicharetheingredientsofourcomplexidea，issomethingquitedifferent:andhadwesuchaknowledgeofthatconstitutionofman，fromwhichhisfacultiesofmoving，sensation，andreasoning，andotherpowersflow，andonwhichhissoregularshapedepends，asitispossibleangelshave，anditiscertainhisMakerhas，weshouldhaveaquiteotherideaofhisessencethanwhatnowiscontainedinourdefinitionofthatspecies，beitwhatitwill:andourideaofanyindividualmanwouldbeasfardifferentfromwhatitisnow，asishiswhoknowsallthespringsandwheelsandothercontrivanceswithinofthefamousclockatStrasburg，fromthatwhichagazingcountrymanhasofit，whobarelyseesthemotionofthehand，andhearstheclockstrike，andobservesonlysomeoftheoutwardappearances。
4。Nothingessentialtoindividuals。Thatessence，intheordinaryuseoftheword，relatestosorts，andthatitisconsideredinparticularbeingsnofurtherthanastheyarerankedintosorts，appearsfromhence:that，takebutawaytheabstractideasbywhichwesortindividuals，andrankthemundercommonnames，andthenthethoughtofanythingessentialtoanyoftheminstantlyvanishes:wehavenonotionoftheonewithouttheother，whichplainlyshowstheirrelation。ItisnecessaryformetobeasIam；Godandnaturehasmademeso:butthereisnothingIhaveisessentialtome。Anaccidentordiseasemayverymuchaltermycolourorshape；afeverorfallmaytakeawaymyreasonormemory，orboth；andanapoplexyleaveneithersense，norunderstanding，no，norlife。Othercreaturesofmyshapemaybemadewithmoreandbetter，orfewerandworsefacultiesthanIhave；andothersmayhavereasonandsenseinashapeandbodyverydifferentfrommine。Noneoftheseareessentialtotheoneortheother，ortoanyindividualwhatever，tillthemindrefersittosomesortorspeciesofthings；andthenpresently，accordingtotheabstractideaofthatsort，somethingisfoundessential。Letanyoneexaminehisownthoughts，andhewillfindthatassoonashesupposesorspeaksofessential，theconsiderationofsomespecies，orthecomplexideasignifiedbysomegeneralname，comesintohismind；anditisinreferencetothatthatthisorthatqualityissaidtobeessential。Sothatifitbeasked，whetheritbeessentialtomeoranyotherparticularcorporealbeing，tohavereason？Isay，no；nomorethanitisessentialtothiswhitethingIwriteontohavewordsinit。Butifthatparticularbeingbetobecountedofthesortman，andtohavethenamemangivenit，thenreasonisessentialtoit；supposingreasontobeapartofthecomplexideathenamemanstandsfor:asitisessentialtothisthingIwriteontocontainwords，ifIwillgiveitthenametreatise，andrankitunderthatspecies。Sothatessentialandnotessentialrelateonlytoourabstractideas，andthenamesannexedtothem；whichamountstonomorethanthis，Thatwhateverparticularthinghasnotinitthosequalitieswhicharecontainedintheabstractideawhichanygeneraltermstandsfor，cannotberankedunderthatspecies，norbecalledbythatname；sincethatabstractideaistheveryessenceofthatspecies。
5。Theonlyessencesperceivedbyusinindividualsubstancesarethosequalitieswhichentitlethemtoreceivetheirnames。Thus，iftheideaofbodywithsomepeoplebebareextensionorspace，thensolidityisnotessentialtobody:ifothersmaketheideatowhichtheygivethenamebodytobesolidityandextension，thensolidityisessentialtobody。Thattherefore，andthatalone，isconsideredasessential，whichmakesapartofthecomplexideathenameofasortstandsfor:withoutwhichnoparticularthingcanbereckonedofthatsort，norbeentitledtothatname。Shouldtherebefoundaparcelofmatterthathadalltheotherqualitiesthatareiniron，butwantedobediencetotheloadstone，andwouldneitherbedrawnbyitnorreceivedirectionfromit，wouldanyonequestionwhetheritwantedanythingessential？Itwouldbeabsurdtoask，Whetherathingreallyexistingwantedanythingessentialtoit。Orcoulditbedemanded，Whetherthismadeanessentialorspecificdifferenceorno，sincewehavenoothermeasureofessentialorspecificbutourabstractideas？Andtotalkofspecificdifferencesinnature，withoutreferencetogeneralideasinnames，istotalkunintelligibly。ForIwouldaskanyone，Whatissufficienttomakeanessentialdifferenceinnaturebetweenanytwoparticularbeings，withoutanyregardhadtosomeabstractidea，whichislookeduponastheessenceandstandardofaspecies？Allsuchpatternsandstandardsbeingquitelaidaside，particularbeings，consideredbarelyinthemselves，willbefoundtohavealltheirqualitiesequallyessential；andeverythingineachindividualwillbeessentialtoit；or，whichismore，nothingatall。For，thoughitmaybereasonabletoask，Whetherobeyingthemagnetbeessentialtoiron？
yetIthinkitisveryimproperandinsignificanttoask，whetheritbeessentialtotheparticularparcelofmatterIcutmypenwith；
withoutconsideringitunderthename，iron，orasbeingofacertainspecies。Andif，ashasbeensaid，ourabstractideas，whichhavenamesannexedtothem，aretheboundariesofspecies，nothingcanbeessentialbutwhatiscontainedinthoseideas。
6。Eventherealessencesofindividualsubstancesimplypotentialsorts。Itistrue，Ihaveoftenmentionedarealessence，distinctinsubstancesfromthoseabstractideasofthem，whichIcalltheirnominalessence。BythisrealessenceImean，thatrealconstitutionofanything，whichisthefoundationofallthosepropertiesthatarecombinedin，andareconstantlyfoundtoco-existwiththenominalessence；thatparticularconstitutionwhicheverythinghaswithinitself，withoutanyrelationtoanythingwithoutit。Butessence，eveninthissense，relatestoasort，andsupposesaspecies。For，beingthatrealconstitutiononwhichthepropertiesdepend，itnecessarilysupposesasortofthings，propertiesbelongingonlytospecies，andnottoindividuals:v。g。supposingthenominalessenceofgoldtobeabodyofsuchapeculiarcolourandweight，withmalleabilityandfusibility，therealessenceisthatconstitutionofthepartsofmatteronwhichthesequalitiesandtheiruniondepend；andisalsothefoundationofitssolubilityinaquaregiaandotherproperties，accompanyingthatcomplexidea。Hereareessencesandproperties，butalluponsuppositionofasortorgeneralabstractidea，whichisconsideredasimmutable；butthereisnoindividualparcelofmattertowhichanyofthesequalitiesaresoannexedastobeessentialtoitorinseparablefromit。Thatwhichisessentialbelongstoitasaconditionwherebyitisofthisorthatsort:buttakeawaytheconsiderationofitsbeingrankedunderthenameofsomeabstractidea，andthenthereisnothingnecessarytoit，nothinginseparablefromit。Indeed，astotherealessencesofsubstances，weonlysupposetheirbeing，withoutpreciselyknowingwhattheyare；butthatwhichannexesthemstilltothespeciesisthenominalessence，ofwhichtheyarethesupposedfoundationandcause。
7。Thenominalessenceboundsthespeciesforus。Thenextthingtobeconsideredis，bywhichofthoseessencesitisthatsubstancesaredeterminedintosortsorspecies；andthat，itisevident，isbythenominalessence。Foritisthatalonethatthename，whichisthemarkofthesort，signifies。Itisimpossible，therefore，thatanythingshoulddeterminethesortsofthings，whichwerankundergeneralnames，butthatideawhichthatnameisdesignedasamarkfor；whichisthat，ashasbeenshown，whichwecallnominalessence。Whydowesaythisisahorse，andthatamule；thisisananimal，thatanherb？Howcomesanyparticularthingtobeofthisorthatsort，butbecauseithasthatnominalessence；or，whichisallone，agreestothatabstractidea，thatnameisannexedto？AndIdesireanyonebuttoreflectonhisownthoughts，whenhehearsorspeaksanyofthoseorothernamesofsubstances，toknowwhatsortofessencestheystandfor。
8。Thenatureofspecies，asformedbyus。Andthatthespeciesofthingstousarenothingbuttherankingthemunderdistinctnames，accordingtothecomplexideasinus，andnotaccordingtoprecise，distinct，realessencesinthem，isplainfromhence:-Thatwefindmanyoftheindividualsthatarerankedintoonesort，calledbyonecommonname，andsoreceivedasbeingofonespecies，haveyetqualities，dependingontheirrealconstitutions，asfardifferentonefromanotherasfromothersfromwhichtheyareaccountedtodifferspecifically。This，asitiseasytobeobservedbyallwhohavetodowithnaturalbodies，sochemistsespeciallyareoften，bysadexperience，convincedofit，whenthey，sometimesinvain，seekforthesamequalitiesinoneparcelofsulphur，antimony，orvitriol，whichtheyhavefoundinothers。For，thoughtheyarebodiesofthesamespecies，havingthesamenominalessence，underthesamename，yetdotheyoften，uponseverewaysofexamination，betrayqualitiessodifferentonefromanother，astofrustratetheexpectationandlabourofverywarychemists。Butifthingsweredistinguishedintospecies，accordingtotheirrealessences，itwouldbeasimpossibletofinddifferentpropertiesinanytwoindividualsubstancesofthesamespecies，asitistofinddifferentpropertiesintwocircles，ortwoequilateraltriangles。Thatisproperlytheessencetous，whichdetermineseveryparticulartothisorthatclassis；or，whichisthesamething，tothisorthatgeneralname:andwhatcanthatbeelse，butthatabstractideatowhichthatnameisannexed；andsohas，intruth，areference，notsomuchtothebeingofparticularthings，astotheirgeneraldenominations？
9。Nottherealessence，ortextureofparts，whichweknownot。Norindeedcanwerankandsortthings，andconsequently(whichistheendofsorting)denominatethem，bytheirrealessences；becauseweknowthemnot。Ourfacultiescarryusnofurthertowardstheknowledgeanddistinctionofsubstances，thanacollectionofthosesensibleideaswhichweobserveinthem；which，howevermadewiththegreatestdiligenceandexactnesswearecapableof，yetismoreremotefromthetrueinternalconstitutionfromwhichthosequalitiesflow，than，asIsaid，acountryman’sideaisfromtheinwardcontrivanceofthatfamousclockatStrasburg，whereofheonlyseestheoutwardfigureandmotions。Thereisnotsocontemptibleaplantoranimal，thatdoesnotconfoundthemostenlargedunderstanding。Thoughthefamiliaruseofthingsaboutustakeoffourwonder，yetitcuresnotourignorance。Whenwecometoexaminethestoneswetreadon，ortheironwedailyhandle，wepresentlyfindweknownottheirmake；
andcangivenoreasonofthedifferentqualitieswefindinthem。
Itisevidenttheinternalconstitution，whereontheirpropertiesdepend，isunknowntous:fortogonofurtherthanthegrossestandmostobviouswecanimagineamongstthem，Whatisthattextureofparts，thatrealessence，thatmakesleadandantimonyfusible，woodandstonesnot？Whatmakesleadandironmalleable，antimonyandstonesnot？Andyethowinfinitelythesecomeshortofthefinecontrivancesandinconceivablerealessencesofplantsoranimals，everyoneknows。Theworkmanshipoftheall-wiseandpowerfulGodinthegreatfabricoftheuniverse，andeverypartthereof，furtherexceedsthecapacityandcomprehensionofthemostinquisitiveandintelligentman，thanthebestcontrivanceofthemostingeniousmandoththeconceptionsofthemostignorantofrationalcreatures。
Thereforeweinvainpretendtorangethingsintosorts，anddisposethemintocertainclassesundernames，bytheirrealessences，thataresofarfromourdiscoveryorcomprehension。Ablindmanmayassoonsortthingsbytheircolours，andhethathaslosthissmellaswelldistinguishalilyandarosebytheirodours，asbythoseinternalconstitutionswhichheknowsnot。Hethatthinkshecandistinguishsheepandgoatsbytheirrealessences，thatareunknowntohim，maybepleasedtotryhisskillinthosespeciescalledcassiowaryandquerechinchio；andbytheirinternalrealessencesdeterminetheboundariesofthosespecies，withoutknowingthecomplexideaofsensiblequalitiesthateachofthosenamesstandfor，inthecountrieswherethoseanimalsaretobefound。
10。Notthesubstantialform，whichweknowless。Those，therefore，whohavebeentaughtthattheseveralspeciesofsubstanceshadtheirdistinctinternalsubstantialforms，andthatitwasthoseformswhichmadethedistinctionofsubstancesintotheirtruespeciesandgenera，wereledyetfurtheroutofthewaybyhavingtheirmindssetuponfruitlessinquiriesafter\"substantialforms\"；whollyunintelligible，andwhereofwehavescarcesomuchasanyobscureorconfusedconceptioningeneral。
11。Thatthenominalessenceisthatonlywherebywedistinguishspeciesofsubstances，furtherevident，fromourideasoffinitespiritsandofGod。Thatourrankinganddistinguishingnaturalsubstancesintospeciesconsistsinthenominalessencesthemindmakes，andnotintherealessencestobefoundinthethingsthemselves，isfurtherevidentfromourideasofspirits。Forthemindgetting，onlybyreflectingonitsownoperations，thosesimpleideaswhichitattributestospirits，ithathorcanhavenoothernotionofspiritbutbyattributingallthoseoperationsitfindsinitselftoasortofbeings；withoutconsiderationofmatter。AndeventhemostadvancednotionwehaveofGODisbutattributingthesamesimpleideaswhichwehavegotfromreflectiononwhatwefindinourselves，andwhichweconceivetohavemoreperfectioninthemthanwouldbeintheirabsence；attributing，Isay，thosesimpleideastoHiminanunlimiteddegree。Thus，havinggotfromreflectingonourselvestheideaofexistence，knowledge，powerandpleasure-eachofwhichwefinditbettertohavethantowant；andthemorewehaveofeachthebetter-joiningallthesetogether，withinfinitytoeachofthem，wehavethecomplexideaofaneternal，omniscient，omnipotent，infinitelywiseandhappybeing。Andthoughwearetoldthattherearedifferentspeciesofangels；yetweknownothowtoframedistinctspecificideasofthem:notoutofanyconceitthattheexistenceofmorespeciesthanoneofspiritsisimpossible；butbecausehavingnomoresimpleideas(norbeingabletoframemore)
applicabletosuchbeings，butonlythosefewtakenfromourselves，andfromtheactionsofourownmindsinthinking，andbeingdelighted，andmovingseveralpartsofourbodies；wecannootherwisedistinguishinourconceptionstheseveralspeciesofspirits，onefromanother，butbyattributingthoseoperationsandpowerswefindinourselvestotheminahigherorlowerdegree；andsohavenoverydistinctspecificideasofspirits，exceptonlyofGOD，towhomweattributebothdurationandallthoseotherideaswithinfinity；totheotherspirits，withlimitation:nor，asIhumblyconceive，dowe，betweenGODandtheminourideas，putanydifference，byanynumberofsimpleideaswhichwehaveofoneandnotoftheother，butonlythatofinfinity。Alltheparticularideasofexistence，knowledge，will，power，andmotion，&c。，beingideasderivedfromtheoperationsofourminds，weattributeallofthemtoallsortsofspirits，withthedifferenceonlyofdegrees；totheutmostwecanimagine，eveninfinity，whenwewouldframeaswellaswecananideaoftheFirstBeing；whoyet，itiscertain，isinfinitelymoreremote，intherealexcellencyofhisnature，fromthehighestandperfectestofallcreatedbeings，thanthegreatestman，nay，purestseraph，isfromthemostcontemptiblepartofmatter；andconsequentlymustinfinitelyexceedwhatournarrowunderstandingscanconceiveofHim。
12。Offinitespiritsthereareprobablynumberlessspecies，inacontinuousseriesorgradation。Itisnotimpossibletoconceive，norrepugnanttoreason，thattheremaybemanyspeciesofspirits，asmuchseparatedanddiversifiedonefromanotherbydistinctpropertieswhereofwehavenoideas，asthespeciesofsensiblethingsaredistinguishedonefromanotherbyqualitieswhichweknowandobserveinthem。Thatthereshouldbemorespeciesofintelligentcreaturesaboveus，thanthereareofsensibleandmaterialbelowus，isprobabletomefromhence:thatinallthevisiblecorporealworld，weseenochasmsorgaps。Allquitedownfromusthedescentisbyeasysteps，andacontinuedseriesofthings，thatineachremovedifferverylittleonefromtheother。Therearefishesthathavewings，andarenotstrangerstotheairyregion:andtherearesomebirdsthatareinhabitantsofthewater，whosebloodiscoldasfishes，andtheirfleshsolikeintastethatthescrupulousareallowedthemonfish-days。Thereareanimalssonearofkinbothtobirdsandbeaststhattheyareinthemiddlebetweenboth:
amphibiousanimalslinktheterrestrialandaquatictogether；sealsliveatlandandsea，andporpoiseshavethewarmbloodandentrailsofahog；nottomentionwhatisconfidentlyreportedofmermaids，orsea-men。Therearesomebrutesthatseemtohaveasmuchknowledgeandreasonassomethatarecalledmen:andtheanimalandvegetablekingdomsaresonearlyjoined，that，ifyouwilltakethelowestofoneandthehighestoftheother，therewillscarcebeperceivedanygreatdifferencebetweenthem:andsoon，tillwecometothelowestandthemostinorganicalpartsofmatter，weshallfindeverywherethattheseveralspeciesarelinkedtogether，anddifferbutinalmostinsensibledegrees。AndwhenweconsidertheinfinitepowerandwisdomoftheMaker，wehavereasontothinkthatitissuitabletothemagnificentharmonyoftheuniverse，andthegreatdesignandinfinitegoodnessoftheArchitect，thatthespeciesofcreaturesshouldalso，bygentledegrees，ascendupwardfromustowardhisinfiniteperfection，asweseetheygraduallydescendfromusdownwards:whichifitbeprobable，wehavereasonthentobepersuadedthattherearefarmorespeciesofcreaturesaboveusthantherearebeneath；webeing，indegreesofperfection，muchmoreremotefromtheinfinitebeingofGODthanwearefromtheloweststateofbeing，andthatwhichapproachesnearesttonothing。
Andyetofallthosedistinctspecies，forthereasonsabovesaid，wehavenocleardistinctideas。
13。Thenominalessencethatofthespecies，asconceivedbyus，provedfromwaterandice。Buttoreturntothespeciesofcorporealsubstances。IfIshouldaskanyonewhethericeandwaterweretwodistinctspeciesofthings，IdoubtnotbutIshouldbeansweredintheaffirmative:anditcannotbedeniedbuthethatsaystheyaretwodistinctspeciesisintheright。ButifanEnglishmanbredinJamaica，whoperhapshadneverseennorheardofice，comingintoEnglandinthewinter，findthewaterheputinhisbasinatnightinagreatpartfrozeninthemorning，and，notknowinganypeculiarnameithad，shouldcallithardenedwater；Iaskwhetherthiswouldbeanewspeciestohim，differentfromwater？AndIthinkitwouldbeansweredhere，Itwouldnotbetohimanewspecies，nomorethancongealedjelly，whenitiscold，isadistinctspeciesfromthesamejellyfluidandwarm；orthanliquidgoldinthefurnaceisadistinctspeciesfromhardgoldinthehandsofaworkman。Andifthisbeso，itisplainthatourdistinctspeciesarenothingbutdistinctcomplexideas，withdistinctnamesannexedtothem。Itistrueeverysubstancethatexistshasitspeculiarconstitution，whereondependthosesensiblequalitiesandpowersweobserveinit；
buttherankingofthingsintospecies(whichisnothingbutsortingthemunderseveraltitles)isdonebyusaccordingtotheideasthatwehaveofthem:which，thoughsufficienttodistinguishthembynames，sothatwemaybeabletodiscourseofthemwhenwehavethemnotpresentbeforeus；yetifwesupposeittobedonebytheirrealinternalconstitutions，andthatthingsexistingaredistinguishedbynatureintospecies，byrealessences，accordingaswedistinguishthemintospeciesbynames，weshallbeliabletogreatmistakes。
14。Difficultiesinthesuppositionofacertainnumberofrealessences。Todistinguishsubstantialbeingsintospecies，accordingtotheusualsupposition，thattherearecertainpreciseessencesorformsofthings，wherebyalltheindividualsexistingare，bynaturedistinguishedintospecies，thesethingsarenecessary:-
15。Acrudesupposition。First，Tobeassuredthatnature，intheproductionofthings，alwaysdesignsthemtopartakeofcertainregulatedestablishedessences，whicharetobethemodelsofallthingstobeproduced。This，inthatcrudesenseitisusuallyproposed，wouldneedsomebetterexplication，beforeitcanfullybeassentedto。
16。Monstrousbirths。Secondly，Itwouldbenecessarytoknowwhethernaturealwaysattainsthatessenceitdesignsintheproductionofthings。Theirregularandmonstrousbirths，thatindiverssortsofanimalshavebeenobserved，willalwaysgiveusreasontodoubtofoneorbothofthese。
17。Aremonstersreallyadistinctspecies？Thirdly，Itoughttobedeterminedwhetherthosewecallmonstersbereallyadistinctspecies，accordingtothescholasticnotionofthewordspecies；sinceitiscertainthateverythingthatexistshasitsparticularconstitution。Andyetwefindthatsomeofthesemonstrousproductionshavefewornoneofthosequalitieswhicharesupposedtoresultfrom，andaccompany，theessenceofthatspeciesfromwhence，theyderivetheiroriginals，andtowhich，bytheirdescent，theyseemtobelong。
18。Mencanhavenoideasofrealessences。Fourthly，Therealessencesofthosethingswhichwedistinguishintospecies，andassodistinguishedwename，oughttobeknown；i。e。weoughttohaveideasofthem。Butsinceweareignorantinthesefourpoints，thesupposedrealessencesofthingsstandusnotinsteadforthedistinguishingsubstancesintospecies。
19。Ournominalessencesofsubstancesnotperfectcollectionsofthepropertiesthatflowfromtheirrealessences。Fifthly，Theonlyimaginablehelpinthiscasewouldbe，that，havingframedperfectcomplexideasofthepropertiesofthingsflowingfromtheirdifferentrealessences，weshouldtherebydistinguishthemintospecies。Butneithercanthisbedone。For，beingignorantoftherealessenceitself，itisimpossibletoknowallthosepropertiesthatflowfromit，andaresoannexedtoit，thatanyoneofthembeingaway，wemaycertainlyconcludethatthatessenceisnotthere，andsothethingisnotofthatspecies。Wecanneverknowwhatistheprecisenumberofpropertiesdependingontherealessenceofgold，anyoneofwhichfailing，therealessenceofgold，andconsequentlygold，wouldnotbethere，unlessweknewtherealessenceofgolditself，andbythatdeterminedthatspecies。Bythewordgoldhere，Imustbeunderstoodtodesignaparticularpieceofmatter；v。g。thelastguineathatwascoined。For，ifitshouldstandhere，initsordinarysignification，forthatcomplexideawhichIoranyoneelsecallsgold，i。e。forthenominalessenceofgold，itwouldbejargon。Sohardisittoshowthevariousmeaningandimperfectionofwords，whenwehavenothingelsebutwordstodoitby。
20。Hencenamesindependentofrealessences。Byallwhichitisclear，thatourdistinguishingsubstancesintospeciesbynames，isnotatallfoundedontheirrealessences；norcanwepretendtorangeanddeterminethemexactlyintospecies，accordingtointernalessentialdifferences。
21。Butstandforsuchacollectionofsimplesubstances，aswehavemadethenamestandfor。Butsince，ashasbeenremarked，wehaveneedofgeneralwords，thoughweknownottherealessencesofthings；
allwecandois，tocollectsuchanumberofsimpleideasas，byexamination，wefindtobeunitedtogetherinthingsexisting，andthereoftomakeonecomplexidea。Which，thoughitbenottherealessenceofanysubstancethatexists，isyetthespecificessencetowhichournamebelongs，andisconvertiblewithit；bywhichwemayatleasttrythetruthofthesenominalessences。Forexample:therebethatsaythattheessenceofbodyisextension；ifitbeso，wecannevermistakeinputtingtheessenceofanythingforthethingitself。
Letusthenindiscourseputextensionforbody，andwhenwewouldsaythatbodymoves，letussaythatextensionmoves，andseehowillitwilllook。Hethatshouldsaythatoneextensionbyimpulsemovesanotherextension，would，bythebareexpression，sufficientlyshowtheabsurdityofsuchanotion。Theessenceofanythinginrespectofus，isthewholecomplexideacomprehendedandmarkedbythatname；
andinsubstances，besidestheseveraldistinctsimpleideasthatmakethemup，theconfusedoneofsubstance，orofanunknownsupportandcauseoftheirunion，isalwaysapart:andthereforetheessenceofbodyisnotbareextension，butanextendedsolidthing；andsotosay，anextendedsolidthingmoves，orimpelsanother，isallone，andasintelligible，astosay，bodymovesorimpels。Likewise，tosaythatarationalanimaliscapableofconversation，isalloneastosayaman；butnoonewillsaythatrationalityiscapableofconversation，becauseitmakesnotthewholeessencetowhichwegivethenameman。
22。Ourabstractideasaretousthemeasuresofthespecieswemake:instanceinthatofman。Therearecreaturesintheworldthathaveshapeslikeours，butarehairy，andwantlanguageandreason。
Therearenaturalsamongstusthathaveperfectlyourshape，butwantreason，andsomeofthemlanguagetoo。Therearecreatures，asitissaid，(sitfidespenesauthorem，butthereappearsnocontradictionthatthereshouldbesuch)，that，withlanguageandreasonandashapeinotherthingsagreeingwithours，havehairytails；otherswherethemaleshavenobeards，andotherswherethefemaleshave。Ifitbeaskedwhetherthesebeallmenorno，allofhumanspecies？itisplain，thequestionrefersonlytothenominalessence:forthoseofthemtowhomthedefinitionofthewordman，orthecomplexideasignifiedbythename，agrees，aremen，andtheothernot。Butiftheinquirybemadeconcerningthesupposedrealessence；andwhethertheinternalconstitutionandframeoftheseseveralcreaturesbespecificallydifferent，itiswhollyimpossibleforustoanswer，nopartofthatgoingintoourspecificidea:onlywehavereasontothink，thatwherethefacultiesoroutwardframesomuchdiffers，theinternalconstitutionisnotexactlythesame。Butwhatdifferenceintherealinternalconstitutionmakesaspecificdifferenceitisinvaintoinquire；whilstourmeasuresofspeciesbe，astheyare，onlyourabstractideas，whichweknow；andnotthatinternalconstitution，whichmakesnopartofthem。Shallthedifferenceofhaironlyontheskinbeamarkofadifferentinternalspecificconstitutionbetweenachangelingandadrill，whentheyagreeinshape，andwantofreasonandspeech？Andshallnotthewantofreasonandspeechbeasigntousofdifferentrealconstitutionsandspeciesbetweenachangelingandareasonableman？Andsooftherest，ifwepretendthatdistinctionofspeciesorsortsisfixedlyestablishedbytherealframeandsecretconstitutionsofthings。
23。Speciesinanimalsnotdistinguishedbygeneration。Norletanyonesay，thatthepowerofpropagationinanimalsbythemixtureofmaleandfemale，andinplantsbyseeds，keepsthesupposedrealspeciesdistinctandentire。For，grantingthistobetrue，itwouldhelpusinthedistinctionofthespeciesofthingsnofurtherthanthetribesofanimalsandvegetables。Whatmustwedofortherest？
Butinthosetooitisnotsufficient:forifhistorylienot，womenhaveconceivedbydrills；andwhatrealspecies，bythatmeasure，suchaproductionwillbeinnaturewillbeanewquestion:andwehavereasontothinkthisisnotimpossible，sincemulesandjumarts，theonefromthemixtureofanassandamare，theotherfromthemixtureofabullandamare，aresofrequentintheworld。Ioncesawacreaturethatwastheissueofacatandarat，andhadtheplainmarksofbothaboutit；whereinnatureappearedtohavefollowedthepatternofneithersortalone，buttohavejumbledthembothtogether。
Towhichhethatshalladdthemonstrousproductionsthataresofrequentlytobemetwithinnature，willfindithard，evenintheraceofanimals，todeterminebythepedigreeofwhatspecieseveryanimal’sissueis；andbeatalossabouttherealessence，whichhethinkscertainlyconveyedbygeneration，andhasalonearighttothespecificname。Butfurther，ifthespeciesofanimalsandplantsaretobedistinguishedonlybypropagation，mustIgototheIndiestoseethesireanddamoftheone，andtheplantfromwhichtheseedwasgatheredthatproducedtheother，toknowwhetherthisbeatigerorthattea？
24。Notbysubstantialforms。Uponthewholematter，itisevidentthatitistheirowncollectionsofsensiblequalitiesthatmenmaketheessencesoftheirseveralsortsofsubstances；andthattheirrealinternalstructuresarenotconsideredbythegreatestpartofmeninthesortingthem。Muchlesswereanysubstantialformseverthoughtonbyanybutthosewhohaveinthisonepartoftheworldlearnedthelanguageoftheschools:andyetthoseignorantmen，whopretendnotanyinsightintotherealessences，nortroublethemselvesaboutsubstantialforms，butarecontentwithknowingthingsonefromanotherbytheirsensiblequalities，areoftenbetteracquaintedwiththeirdifferences；canmorenicelydistinguishthemfromtheiruses；andbetterknowwhattheyexpectfromeach，thanthoselearnedquick-sightedmen，wholooksodeepintothem，andtalksoconfidentlyofsomethingmorehiddenandessential。
25。Thespecificessencesthatarecommonlymadebymen。Butsupposingthattherealessencesofsubstanceswerediscoverablebythosethatwouldseverelyapplythemselvestothatinquiry，yetwecouldnotreasonablythinkthattherankingofthingsundergeneralnameswasregulatedbythoseinternalrealconstitutions，oranythingelsebuttheirobviousappearances；sincelanguages，inallcountries，havebeenestablishedlongbeforesciences。Sothattheyhavenotbeenphilosophersorlogicians，orsuchwhohavetroubledthemselvesaboutformsandessences，thathavemadethegeneralnamesthatareinuseamongsttheseveralnationsofmen:butthosemoreorlesscomprehensivetermshave，forthemostpart，inalllanguages，receivedtheirbirthandsignificationfromignorantandilliteratepeople，whosortedanddenominatedthingsbythosesensiblequalitiestheyfoundinthem；therebytosignifythem，whenabsent，toothers，whethertheyhadanoccasiontomentionasortoraparticularthing。
26。Thereforeveryvariousanduncertainintheideasofdifferentmen。Sincethenitisevidentthatwesortandnamesubstancesbytheirnominalandnotbytheirrealessences，thenextthingtobeconsideredishow，andbywhomtheseessencescometobemade。Astothelatter，itisevidenttheyaremadebythemind，andnotbynature:forweretheyNature’sworkmanship，theycouldnotbesovariousanddifferentinseveralmenasexperiencetellsustheyare。Forifwewillexamineit，weshallnotfindthenominalessenceofanyonespeciesofsubstancesinallmenthesame:no，notofthatwhichofallotherswearethemostintimatelyacquaintedwith。Itcouldnotpossiblybethattheabstractideatowhichthenamemanisgivenshouldbedifferentinseveralmen，ifitwereofNature’smaking；andthattooneitshouldbeanimalrationale，andtoanother，animalimplumebipeslatisunguibus。Hethatannexesthenametoacomplexidea，madeupofsenseandspontaneousmotion，joinedtoabodyofsuchashape，hastherebyoneessenceofthespeciesman；andhethat，uponfurtherexamination，addsrationality，hasanotheressenceofthespecieshecallsman:
bywhichmeansthesameindividualwillbeatruemantotheonewhichisnotsototheother。Ithinkthereisscarceanyonewillallowthisuprightfigure，sowellknown，tobetheessentialdifferenceofthespeciesman；andyethowfarmendetermineofthesortsofanimalsratherbytheirshapethandescent，isveryvisible；sinceithasbeenmorethanoncedebated，whetherseveralhumanfoetusesshouldbepreservedorreceivedtobaptismorno，onlybecauseofthedifferenceoftheiroutwardconfigurationfromtheordinarymakeofchildren，withoutknowingwhethertheywerenotascapableofreasonasinfantscastinanothermould:somewhereof，thoughofanapprovedshape，arenevercapableofasmuchappearanceofreasonalltheirlivesasistobefoundinanape，oranelephant，andnevergiveanysignsofbeingactedbyarationalsoul。Wherebyitisevident，thattheoutwardfigure，whichonlywasfoundwanting，andnotthefacultyofreason，whichnobodycouldknowwouldbewantinginitsdueseason，wasmadeessentialtothehumanspecies。Thelearneddivineandlawyermust，onsuchoccasions，renouncehissacreddefinitionofanimalrationale，andsubstitutesomeotheressenceofthehumanspecies。MonsieurMenagefurnishesuswithanexampleworththetakingnoticeofonthisoccasion:\"WhentheabbotofSaintMartin，\"sayshe，\"wasborn，hehadsolittleofthefigureofaman，thatitbespakehimratheramonster。Itwasforsometimeunderdeliberation，whetherheshouldbebaptizedorno。However，hewasbaptized，anddeclaredamanprovisionallytilltimeshouldshowwhathewouldprove。Naturehadmouldedhimsountowardly，thathewascalledallhislifetheAbbotMalotru；i。e。ill-shaped。HewasofCaen。\"(Menagiana，278，430。)Thischild，wesee，wasverynearbeingexcludedoutofthespeciesofman，barelybyhisshape。Heescapedverynarrowlyashewas；anditiscertain，afigurealittlemoreoddlyturnedhadcasthim，andhehadbeenexecuted，asathingnottobeallowedtopassforaman。Andyettherecanbenoreasongivenwhy，ifthelineamentsofhisfacehadbeenalittlealtered，arationalsoulcouldnothavebeenlodgedinhim；whyavisagesomewhatlonger，oranoseflatter，orawidermouth，couldnothaveconsisted，aswellastherestofhisillfigure，withsuchasoul，suchparts，asmadehim，disfiguredashewas，capabletobeadignitaryinthechurch。
27。Nominalessencesofparticularsubstancesareundeterminedbynature，andthereforevariousasmenvary。Wherein，then，wouldI
gladlyknow，consistthepreciseandunmovableboundariesofthatspecies？Itisplain，ifweexamine，thereisnosuchthingmadebyNature，andestablishedbyheramongstmen。Therealessenceofthatoranyothersortofsubstances，itisevident，weknownot；andthereforearesoundeterminedinournominalessences，whichwemakeourselves，that，ifseveralmenweretobeaskedconcerningsomeoddlyshapedfoetus，assoonasborn，whetheritwereamanorno，itispastdoubtoneshouldmeetwithdifferentanswers。Whichcouldnothappen，ifthenominalessences，wherebywelimitanddistinguishthespeciesofsubstances，werenotmadebymanwithsomeliberty；butwereexactlycopiedfrompreciseboundariessetbynature，wherebyitdistinguishedallsubstancesintocertainspecies。WhowouldundertaketoresolvewhatspeciesthatmonsterwasofwhichismentionedbyLicetus(Bk。i。c。3)，withaman’sheadandhog’sbody？Orthoseotherwhichtothebodiesofmenhadtheheadsofbeasts，asdogs，horses，&c。Ifanyofthesecreatureshadlived，andcouldhavespoke，itwouldhaveincreasedthedifficulty。Hadtheupperparttothemiddlebeenofhumanshape，andallbelowswine，haditbeenmurdertodestroyit？Ormustthebishophavebeenconsulted，whetheritweremanenoughtobeadmittedtothefontorno？AsIhavebeentoldithappenedinFrancesomeyearssince，insomewhatalikecase。Souncertainaretheboundariesofspeciesofanimalstous，whohavenoothermeasuresthanthecomplexideasofourowncollecting:andsofararewefromcertainlyknowingwhatamanis；thoughperhapsitwillbejudgedgreatignorancetomakeanydoubtaboutit。AndyetIthinkImaysay，thatthecertainboundariesofthatspeciesaresofarfrombeingdetermined，andtheprecisenumberofsimpleideaswhichmakethenominalessencesofarfrombeingsettledandperfectlyknown，thatverymaterialdoubtsmaystillariseaboutit。AndIimaginenoneofthedefinitionsofthewordmanwhichweyethave，nordescriptionsofthatsortofanimal，aresoperfectandexactastosatisfyaconsiderateinquisitiveperson；muchlesstoobtainageneralconsent，andtobethatwhichmenwouldeverywherestickby，inthedecisionofcases，anddeterminingoflifeanddeath，baptismornobaptism，inproductionsthatmighthappen。
28。Butnotsoarbitraryasmixedmodes。Butthoughthesenominalessencesofsubstancesaremadebythemind，theyarenotyetmadesoarbitrarilyasthoseofmixedmodes。Tothemakingofanynominalessence，itisnecessary，First，thattheideaswhereofitconsistshavesuchaunionastomakebutoneidea，howcompoundedsoever。
Secondly，thattheparticularideassounitedbeexactlythesame，neithermorenorless。Foriftwoabstractcomplexideasdiffereitherinnumberorsortsoftheircomponentparts，theymaketwodifferent，andnotoneandthesameessence。Inthefirstofthese，themind，inmakingitscomplexideasofsubstances，onlyfollowsnature；andputsnonetogetherwhicharenotsupposedtohaveaunioninnature。Nobodyjoinsthevoiceofasheepwiththeshapeofahorse；northecolourofleadwiththeweightandfixednessofgold，tobethecomplexideasofanyrealsubstances；unlesshehasamindtofillhisheadwithchimeras，andhisdiscoursewithunintelligiblewords。Menobservingcertainqualitiesalwaysjoinedandexistingtogether，thereincopiednature；andofideassounitedmadetheircomplexonesofsubstances。For，thoughmenmaymakewhatcomplexideastheyplease，andgivewhatnamestothemtheywill；yet，iftheywillbeunderstoodwhentheyspeakofthingsreallyexisting，theymustinsomedegreeconformtheirideastothethingstheywouldspeakof；orelsemen’slanguagewillbelikethatofBabel；andeveryman’swords，beingintelligibleonlytohimself，wouldnolongerservetoconversationandtheordinaryaffairsoflife，iftheideastheystandforbenotsomewayansweringthecommonappearancesandagreementofsubstancesastheyreallyexist。
29。Ournominalessencesofsubstancesusuallyconsistofafewobviousqualitiesobservedinthings。Secondly，Thoughthemindofman，inmakingitscomplexideasofsubstances，neverputsanytogetherthatdonotreally，orarenotsupposedto，co-exist；andsoittrulyborrowsthatunionfromnature:yetthenumberitcombinesdependsuponthevariouscare，industry，orfancyofhimthatmakesit。Mengenerallycontentthemselveswithsomefewsensibleobviousqualities；andoften，ifnotalways，leaveoutothersasmaterialandasfirmlyunitedasthosethattheytake。Ofsensiblesubstancestherearetwosorts:oneoforganizedbodies，whicharepropagatedbyseed；andinthesetheshapeisthatwhichtousistheleadingquality，andmostcharacteristicalpart，thatdeterminesthespecies。Andthereforeinvegetablesandanimals，anextendedsolidsubstanceofsuchacertainfigureusuallyservestheturn。Forhoweversomemenseemtoprizetheirdefinitionofanimalrationale，yetshouldthereacreaturebefoundthathadlanguageandreason，butpartakednotoftheusualshapeofaman，Ibelieveitwouldhardlypassforaman，howmuchsoeveritwereanimalrationale。AndifBalaam’sasshadallhislifediscoursedasrationallyashedidoncewithhismaster，Idoubtyetwhetheranyonewouldhavethoughthimworthythenameman，orallowedhimtobeofthesamespecieswithhimself。Asinvegetablesandanimalsitistheshape，soinmostotherbodies，notpropagatedbyseed，itisthecolourwemustfixon，andaremostledby。Thuswherewefindthecolourofgold，weareapttoimaginealltheotherqualitiescomprehendedinourcomplexideatobetherealso:andwecommonlytakethesetwoobviousqualities，viz。shapeandcolour，forsopresumptiveideasofseveralspecies，thatinagoodpicture，wereadilysay，thisisalion，andthatarose；thisisagold，andthatasilvergoblet，onlybythedifferentfiguresandcoloursrepresentedtotheeyebythepencil。
30。Yet，imperfectastheythusare，theyserveforcommonconverse。
Butthoughthisserveswellenoughforgrossandconfusedconceptions，andinaccuratewaysoftalkingandthinking；yetmenarefarenoughfromhavingagreedontheprecisenumberofsimpleideasorqualitiesbelongingtoanysortofthings，signifiedbyitsname。
Norisitawonder；sinceitrequiresmuchtime，pains，andskill，strictinquiry，andlongexaminationtofindoutwhat，andhowmany，thosesimpleideasare，whichareconstantlyandinseparablyunitedinnature，andarealwaystobefoundtogetherinthesamesubject。
Mostmen，wantingeithertime，inclination，orindustryenoughforthis，eventosometolerabledegree，contentthemselveswithsomefewobviousandoutwardappearancesofthings，therebyreadilytodistinguishandsortthemforthecommonaffairsoflife:andso，withoutfurtherexamination，givethemnames，ortakeupthenamesalreadyinuse。Which，thoughincommonconversationtheypasswellenoughforthesignsofsomefewobviousqualitiesco-existing，areyetfarenoughfromcomprehending，inasettledsignification，aprecisenumberofsimpleideas，muchlessallthosewhichareunitedinnature。Hethatshallconsider，aftersomuchstiraboutgenusandspecies，andsuchadealoftalkofspecificdifferences，howfewwordswehaveyetsettleddefinitionsof，maywithreasonimagine，thatthoseformswhichtherehathbeensomuchnoisemadeaboutareonlychimeras，whichgiveusnolightintothespecificnaturesofthings。Andhethatshallconsiderhowfarthenamesofsubstancesarefromhavingsignificationswhereinallwhousethemdoagree，willhavereasontoconcludethat，thoughthenominalessencesofsubstancesareallsupposedtobecopiedfromnature，yettheyareall，ormostofthem，veryimperfect。Sincethecompositionofthosecomplexideasare，inseveralmen，verydifferent:andthereforethattheseboundariesofspeciesareasmen，andnotasNature，makesthem，ifatleastthereareinnatureanysuchprefixedbounds。ItistruethatmanyparticularsubstancesaresomadebyNature，thattheyhaveagreementandlikenessonewithanother，andsoaffordafoundationofbeingrankedintosorts。Butthesortingofthingsbyus，orthemakingofdeterminatespecies，beinginordertonamingandcomprehendingthemundergeneralterms，Icannotseehowitcanbeproperlysaid，thatNaturesetstheboundariesofthespeciesofthings:or，ifitbeso，ourboundariesofspeciesarenotexactlyconformabletothoseinnature。Forwe，havingneedofgeneralnamesforpresentuse，staynotforaperfectdiscoveryofallthosequalitieswhichwouldbestshowustheirmostmaterialdifferencesandagreements；butweourselvesdividethem，bycertainobviousappearances，intospecies，thatwemaytheeasierundergeneralnamescommunicateourthoughtsaboutthem。For，havingnootherknowledgeofanysubstancebutofthesimpleideasthatareunitedinit；andobservingseveralparticularthingstoagreewithothersinseveralofthosesimpleideas；wemakethatcollectionourspecificidea，andgiveitageneralname；thatinrecordingourthoughts，andinourdiscoursewithothers，wemayinoneshortworddesignatealltheindividualsthatagreeinthatcomplexidea，withoutenumeratingthesimpleideasthatmakeitup；andsonotwasteourtimeandbreathintediousdescriptions:whichweseetheyarefaintodowhowoulddiscourseofanynewsortofthingstheyhavenotyetanamefor。
31。Essencesofspeciesunderthesamenameverydifferentindifferentminds。Buthoweverthesespeciesofsubstancespasswellenoughinordinaryconversation，itisplainthatthiscomplexidea，whereintheyobserveseveralindividualstoagree，isbydifferentmenmadeverydifferently；bysomemore，andotherslessaccurately。Insome，thiscomplexideacontainsagreater，andinothersasmallernumberofqualities；andsoisapparentlysuchasthemindmakesit。
Theyellowshiningcolourmakesgoldtochildren；othersaddweight，malleableness，andfusibility；andothersyetotherqualities，whichtheyfindjoinedwiththatyellowcolour，asconstantlyasitsweightandfusibility。Forinalltheseandthelikequalities，onehasasgoodarighttobeputintothecomplexideaofthatsubstancewhereintheyarealljoinedasanother。Andthereforedifferentmen，leavingoutorputtinginseveralsimpleideaswhichothersdonot，accordingtotheirvariousexamination，skill，orobservationofthatsubject，havedifferentessencesofgold，whichmustthereforebeoftheirownandnotofnature’smaking。
32。Themoregeneralourideasofsubstancesare，themoreincompleteandpartialtheyare。Ifthenumberofsimpleideasthatmakethenominalessenceofthelowestspecies，orfirstsorting，ofindividuals，dependsonthemindofman，variouslycollectingthem，itismuchmoreevidentthattheydosointhemorecomprehensiveclasses，which，bythemastersoflogic，arecalledgenera。Thesearecomplexideasdesignedlyimperfect:anditisvisibleatfirstsight，thatseveralofthosequalitiesthataretobefoundinthethingsthemselvesarepurposelyleftoutofgenericalideas。For，asthemind，tomakegeneralideascomprehendingseveralparticulars，leavesoutthoseoftimeandplace，andsuchother，thatmakethemincommunicabletomorethanoneindividual；sotomakeotheryetmoregeneralideas，thatmaycomprehenddifferentsorts，itleavesoutthosequalitiesthatdistinguishthem，andputsintoitsnewcollectiononlysuchideasasarecommontoseveralsorts。ThesameconveniencethatmademenexpressseveralparcelsofyellowmattercomingfromGuineaandPeruunderonename，setsthemalsouponmakingofonenamethatmaycomprehendbothgoldandsilver，andsomeotherbodiesofdifferentsorts。Thisisdonebyleavingoutthosequalities，whicharepeculiartoeachsort，andretainingacomplexideamadeupofthosethatarecommontothemall。Towhichthenamemetalbeingannexed，thereisagenusconstituted；theessencewhereofbeingthatabstractidea，containingonlymalleablenessandfusibility，withcertaindegreesofweightandfixedness，whereinsomebodiesofseveralkindsagree，leavesoutthecolourandotherqualitiespeculiartogoldandsilver，andtheothersortscomprehendedunderthenamemetal。Wherebyitisplainthatmenfollownotexactlythepatternssetthembynature，whentheymaketheirgeneralideasofsubstances；sincethereisnobodytobefoundwhichhasbarelymalleablenessandfusibilityinit，withoutotherqualitiesasinseparableasthose。Butmen，inmakingtheirgeneralideas，seekingmoretheconvenienceoflanguage，andquickdispatchbyshortandcomprehensivesigns，thanthetrueandprecisenatureofthingsastheyexist，have，intheframingtheirabstractideas，chieflypursuedthatend；whichwastobefurnishedwithstoreofgeneralandvariouslycomprehensivenames。Sothatinthiswholebusinessofgeneraandspecies，thegenus，ormorecomprehensive，isbutapartialconceptionofwhatisinthespecies；andthespeciesbutapartialideaofwhatistobefoundineachindividual。Ifthereforeanyonewillthinkthataman，andahorse，andananimal，andaplant，&c。，aredistinguishedbyrealessencesmadebynature，hemustthinknaturetobeveryliberaloftheserealessences，makingoneforbody，anotherforananimal，andanotherforahorse；andalltheseessencesliberallybestoweduponBucephalus。Butifwewouldrightlyconsiderwhatisdoneinallthesegeneraandspecies，orsorts，weshouldfindthatthereisnonewthingmade；butonlymoreorlesscomprehensivesigns，wherebywemaybeenabledtoexpressinafewsyllablesgreatnumbersofparticularthings，astheyagreeinmoreorlessgeneralconceptions，whichwehaveframedtothatpurpose。Inallwhichwemayobserve，thatthemoregeneraltermisalwaysthenameofalesscomplexidea；andthateachgenusisbutapartialconceptionofthespeciescomprehendedunderit。Sothatiftheseabstractgeneralideasbethoughttobecomplete，itcanonlybeinrespectofacertainestablishedrelationbetweenthemandcertainnameswhicharemadeuseoftosignifythem；andnotinrespectofanythingexisting，asmadebynature。
33。Thisallaccommodatedtotheendofspeech。Thisisadjustedtothetrueendofspeech，whichistobetheeasiestandshortestwayofcommunicatingournotions。Forthushethatwoulddiscourseofthings，astheyagreedinthecomplexideaofextensionandsolidity，neededbutusethewordbodytodenoteallsuch。Hethattothesewouldjoinothers，signifiedbythewordslife，sense，andspontaneousmotion，neededbutusethewordanimaltosignifyallwhichpartakedofthoseideas，andhethathadmadeacomplexideaofabody，withlife，sense，andmotion，withthefacultyofreasoning，andacertainshapejoinedtoit，neededbutusetheshortmonosyllableman，toexpressallparticularsthatcorrespondtothatcomplexidea。Thisistheproperbusinessofgenusandspecies:andthismendowithoutanyconsiderationofrealessences，orsubstantialforms；whichcomenotwithinthereachofourknowledgewhenwethinkofthosethings，norwithinthesignificationofourwordswhenwediscoursewithothers。
34。InstanceinCassowaries。WereItotalkwithanyoneofasortofbirdsIlatelysawinSt。James’sPark，aboutthreeorfourfeethigh，withacoveringofsomethingbetweenfeathersandhair，ofadarkbrowncolour，withoutwings，butintheplacethereoftwoorthreelittlebranchescomingdownlikesprigsofSpanishbroom，longgreatlegs，withfeetonlyofthreeclaws，andwithoutatail；I
mustmakethisdescriptionofit，andsomaymakeothersunderstandme。ButwhenIamtoldthatthenameofitiscassuaris，Imaythenusethatwordtostandindiscourseforallmycomplexideamentionedinthatdescription；thoughbythatword，whichisnowbecomeaspecificname，IknownomoreoftherealessenceorconstitutionofthatsortofanimalsthanIdidbefore；andknewprobablyasmuchofthenatureofthatspeciesofbirdsbeforeI
learnedthename，asmanyEnglishmendoofswansorherons，whicharespecificnames，verywellknown，ofsortsofbirdscommoninEngland。
35。Mendeterminethesortsofsubstances，whichmaybesortedvariously。Fromwhathasbeensaid，itisevidentthatmenmakesortsofthings。For，itbeingdifferentessencesalonethatmakedifferentspecies，itisplainthattheywhomakethoseabstractideaswhicharethenominalessencesdotherebymakethespecies，orsort。
Shouldtherebeabodyfound，havingalltheotherqualitiesofgoldexceptmalleableness，itwouldnodoubtbemadeaquestionwhetheritweregoldornot，i。e。whetheritwereofthatspecies。Thiscouldbedeterminedonlybythatabstractideatowhicheveryoneannexedthenamegold:sothatitwouldbetruegoldtohim，andbelongtothatspecies，whoincludednotmalleablenessinhisnominalessence，signifiedbythesoundgold；andontheothersideitwouldnotbetruegold，orofthatspecies，tohimwhoincludedmalleablenessinhisspecificidea。Andwho，Ipray，isitthatmakesthesediversespecies，evenunderoneandthesamename，butmenthatmaketwodifferentabstractideas，consistingnotexactlyofthesamecollectionofqualities？Norisitameresuppositiontoimaginethatabodymayexistwhereintheotherobviousqualitiesofgoldmaybewithoutmalleableness；sinceitiscertainthatgolditselfwillbesometimessoeager，(asartistscallit)，thatitwillaslittleendurethehammerasglassitself。Whatwehavesaidoftheputtingin，orleavingoutofmalleableness，inthecomplexideathenamegoldisbyanyoneannexedto，maybesaidofitspeculiarweight，fixedness，andseveralotherthelikequalities:forwhateverisleftout，orputin，itisstillthecomplexideatowhichthatnameisannexedthatmakesthespecies:andasanyparticularparcelofmatteranswersthatidea，sothenameofthesortbelongstrulytoit；anditisofthatspecies。Andthusanythingistruegold，perfectmetal。Allwhichdeterminationofthespecies，itisplain，dependsontheunderstandingofman，makingthisorthatcomplexidea。
36。Naturemakesthesimilitudesofsubstances。This，then，inshort，isthecase:Naturemakesmanyparticularthings，whichdoagreeonewithanotherinmanysensiblequalities，andprobablytoointheirinternalframeandconstitution:butitisnotthisrealessencethatdistinguishesthemintospecies；itismenwho，takingoccasionfromthequalitiestheyfindunitedinthem，andwhereintheyobserveoftenseveralindividualstoagree，rangethemintosorts，inordertotheirnaming，fortheconvenienceofcomprehensivesigns；underwhichindividuals，accordingtotheirconformitytothisorthatabstractidea，cometoberankedasunderensigns:sothatthisisoftheblue，thattheredregiment；thisisaman，thatadrill:andinthis，Ithink，consiststhewholebusinessofgenusandspecies。
37。Themannerofsortingparticularbeingstheworkoffalliblemen，thoughnaturemakesthingsalike。Idonotdenybutnature，intheconstantproductionofparticularbeings，makesthemnotalwaysnewandvarious，butverymuchalikeandofkinonetoanother:butIthinkitneverthelesstrue，thattheboundariesofthespecies，wherebymensortthem，aremadebymen；sincetheessencesofthespecies，distinguishedbydifferentnames，are，ashasbeenproved，ofman’smaking，andseldomadequatetotheinternalnatureofthethingstheyaretakenfrom。Sothatwemaytrulysay，suchamannerofsortingofthingsistheworkmanshipofmen。
