46。Whynotbeingdesired，itmovesnotthewill。Theordinarynecessitiesofourlivesfillagreatpartofthemwiththeuneasinessesofhunger，thirst，heat，cold，weariness，withlabour，andsleepiness，intheirconstantreturns，&c。Towhich，if，besidesaccidentalharms，weaddthefantasticaluneasiness(asitchafterhonour，power，orriches，&c。)whichacquiredhabits，byfashion，example，andeducation，havesettledinus，andathousandotherirregulardesires，whichcustomhasmadenaturaltous，weshallfindthataverylittlepartofourlifeissovacantfromtheseuneasinesses，astoleaveusfreetotheattractionofremoterabsentgood。Weareseldomatease，andfreeenoughfromthesolicitationofournaturaloradopteddesires，butaconstantsuccessionofuneasinessesoutofthatstockwhichnaturalwantsoracquiredhabitshaveheapedup，takethewillintheirturns；andnosoonerisoneactiondispatched，whichbysuchadeterminationofthewillwearesetupon，butanotheruneasinessisreadytosetusonwork。For，theremovingofthepainswefeel，andareatpresentpressedwith，beingthegettingoutofmisery，andconsequentlythefirstthingtobedoneinordertohappiness，-absentgood，thoughthoughton，confessed，andappearingtobegood，notmakinganypartofthisunhappinessinitsabsence，isjustledout，tomakewayfortheremovalofthoseuneasinesseswefeel；tilldueandrepeatedcontemplationhasbroughtitnearertoourmind，givensomerelishofit，andraisedinussomedesire:whichthenbeginningtomakeapartofourpresentuneasiness，standsuponfairtermswiththeresttobesatisfied，andso，accordingtoitsgreatnessandpressure，comesinitsturntodeterminethewill。
47。Dueconsiderationraisesdesire。Andthus，byadueconsideration，andexamininganygoodproposed，itisinourpowertoraiseourdesiresinadueproportiontothevalueofthatgood，wherebyinitsturnandplaceitmaycometoworkuponthewill，andbepursued。Forgood，thoughappearingandallowedeversogreat，yettillithasraiseddesiresinourminds，andtherebymadeusuneasyinitswant，itreachesnotourwills；wearenotwithinthesphereofitsactivity，ourwillsbeingunderthedeterminationonlyofthoseuneasinesseswhicharepresenttous，which(whilstwehaveany)arealwayssoliciting，andreadyathandtogivethewillitsnextdetermination。Thebalancing，whenthereisanyinthemind，beingonly，whichdesireshallbenextsatisfied，whichuneasinessfirstremoved。Wherebyitcomestopassthat，aslongasanyuneasiness，anydesire，remainsinourmind，thereisnoroomforgood，barelyassuch，tocomeatthewill，oratalltodetermineit。Because，ashasbeensaid，thefirststepinourendeavoursafterhappinessbeingtogetwhollyoutoftheconfinesofmisery，andtofeelnopartofit，thewillcanbeatleisurefornothingelse，tilleveryuneasinesswefeelbeperfectlyremoved。which，inthemultitudeofwantsanddesireswearebesetwithinthisimperfectstate，wearenotliketobeeverfreedfrominthisworld。
48。Thepowertosuspendtheprosecutionofanydesiremakeswayforconsideration。Therebeinginusagreatmanyuneasinesses，alwayssolicitingandreadytodeterminethewill，itisnatural，asIhavesaid，thatthegreatestandmostpressingshoulddeterminethewilltothenextaction；andsoitdoesforthemostpart，butnotalways。
For，themindhavinginmostcases，asisevidentinexperience，apowertosuspendtheexecutionandsatisfactionofanyofitsdesires；
andsoall，oneafteranother；isatlibertytoconsidertheobjectsofthem，examinethemonallsides，andweighthemwithothers。Inthisliesthelibertymanhas；andfromthenotusingofitrightcomesallthatvarietyofmistakes，errors，andfaultswhichwerunintointheconductofourlives，andourendeavoursafterhappiness；whilstweprecipitatethedeterminationofourwills，andengagetoosoon，beforedueexamination。Topreventthis，wehaveapowertosuspendtheprosecutionofthisorthatdesire；aseveryonedailymayexperimentinhimself。Thisseemstomethesourceofallliberty；inthisseemstoconsistthatwhichis(asIthinkimproperly)calledfree-will。For，duringthissuspensionofanydesire，beforethewillbedeterminedtoaction，andtheaction(whichfollowsthatdetermination)done，wehaveopportunitytoexamine，view，andjudgeofthegoodorevilofwhatwearegoingtodo；andwhen，upondueexamination，wehavejudged，wehavedoneourduty，allthatwecan，oroughttodo，inpursuitofourhappiness；anditisnotafault，butaperfectionofournature，todesire，will，andactaccordingtothelastresultofafairexamination。
49。Tobedeterminedbyourownjudgment，isnorestrainttoliberty。Thisissofarfrombeingarestraintordiminutionoffreedom，thatitistheveryimprovementandbenefitofit；itisnotanabridgment，itistheendanduseofourliberty；andthefurtherweareremovedfromsuchadetermination，thenearerwearetomiseryandslavery。Aperfectindifferenceinthemind，notdeterminablebyitslastjudgmentofthegoodorevilthatisthoughttoattenditschoice，wouldbesofarfrombeinganadvantageandexcellencyofanyintellectualnature，thatitwouldbeasgreatanimperfection，asthewantofindifferency。toact，ornottoact，tilldeterminedbythewill，wouldbeanimperfectionontheotherside。Amanisatlibertytoliftuphishandtohishead，orletitrestquiet:heisperfectlyindifferentineither；anditwouldbeanimperfectioninhim，ifhewantedthatpower，ifheweredeprivedofthatindifferency。Butitwouldbeasgreatanimperfection，ifhehadthesameindifferency，whetherhewouldprefertheliftinguphishand，oritsremaininginrest，whenitwouldsavehisheadoreyesfromablowheseescoming:itisasmuchaperfection，thatdesire，orthepowerofpreferring，shouldbedeterminedbygood，asthatthepowerofactingshouldbedeterminedbythewill；andthecertainersuchdeterminationis，thegreateristheperfection。Nay，werewedeterminedbyanythingbutthelastresultofourownminds，judgingofthegoodorevilofanyaction，wewerenotfree；theveryendofourfreedombeing，thatwemayattainthegoodwechoose。Andtherefore，everymanisputunderanecessity，byhisconstitutionasanintelligentbeing，tobedeterminedinwillingbyhisownthoughtandjudgmentwhatisbestforhimtodo:
elsehewouldbeunderthedeterminationofsomeotherthanhimself，whichiswantofliberty。Andtodenythataman’swill，ineverydetermination，followshisownjudgment，istosay，thatamanwillsandactsforanendthathewouldnothave，atthetimethathewillsandactsforit。Forifheprefersitinhispresentthoughtsbeforeanyother，itisplainhethenthinksbetterofit，andwouldhaveitbeforeanyother；unlesshecanhaveandnothaveit，willandnotwillit，atthesametime；acontradictiontoomanifesttobeadmitted。
50。Thefreestagentsaresodetermined。Ifwelookuponthosesuperiorbeingsaboveus，whoenjoyperfecthappiness，weshallhavereasontojudgethattheyaremoresteadilydeterminedintheirchoiceofgoodthanwe；andyetwehavenoreasontothinktheyarelesshappy，orlessfree，thanweare。Andifitwerefitforsuchpoorfinitecreaturesaswearetopronouncewhatinfinitewisdomandgoodnesscoulddo，Ithinkwemightsay，thatGodhimselfcannotchoosewhatisnotgood；thefreedomoftheAlmightyhindersnothisbeingdeterminedbywhatisbest。
51。Aconstantdeterminationtoapursuitofhappinessnoabridgmentofliberty。Buttogivearightviewofthismistakenpartoflibertyletmeask，-Wouldanyonebeachangeling，becauseheislessdeterminedbywiseconsiderationsthanawiseman？Isitworththenameoffreedomtobeatlibertytoplaythefool，anddrawshameandmiseryuponaman’sself？Iftobreakloosefromtheconductofreason，andtowantthatrestraintofexaminationandjudgmentwhichkeepsusfromchoosingordoingtheworse，beliberty，trueliberty，madmenandfoolsaretheonlyfreemen:butyet，Ithink，nobodywouldchoosetobemadforthesakeofsuchliberty，buthethatismadalready。Theconstantdesireofhappiness，andtheconstraintitputsuponustoactforit，nobody，Ithink，accountsanabridgmentofliberty，oratleastanabridgmentoflibertytobecomplainedof。GodAlmightyhimselfisunderthenecessityofbeinghappy；andthemoreanyintelligentbeingisso，thenearerisitsapproachtoinfiniteperfectionandhappiness。That，inthisstateofignorance，weshort-sightedcreaturesmightnotmistaketruefelicity，weareendowedwithapowertosuspendanyparticulardesire，andkeepitfromdeterminingthewill，andengagingusinaction。Thisisstandingstill，wherewearenotsufficientlyassuredoftheway:examinationisconsultingaguide。Thedeterminationofthewilluponinquiry，isfollowingthedirectionofthatguide:andhethathasapowertoactornottoact，accordingassuchdeterminationdirects，isafreeagent:suchdeterminationabridgesnotthatpowerwhereinlibertyconsists。Hethathashischainsknockedoff，andtheprisondoorssetopentohim，isperfectlyatliberty，becausehemayeithergoorstay，ashebestlikes；thoughhispreferencebedeterminedtostay，bythedarknessofthenight，orillnessoftheweather，orwantofotherlodging。Heceasesnottobefree；thoughthedesireofsomeconveniencetobehadthereabsolutelydetermineshispreference，andmakeshimstayinhisprison。
52。Thenecessityofpursuingtruehappinessthefoundationofliberty。Asthereforethehighestperfectionofintellectualnatureliesinacarefulandconstantpursuitoftrueandsolidhappiness；sothecareofourselves，thatwemistakenotimaginaryforrealhappiness，isthenecessaryfoundationofourliberty。Thestrongertieswehavetoanunalterablepursuitofhappinessingeneral，whichisourgreatestgood，andwhich，assuch，ourdesiresalwaysfollow，themorearewefreefromanynecessarydeterminationofourwilltoanyparticularaction，andfromanecessarycompliancewithourdesire，setuponanyparticular，andthenappearingpreferablegood，tillwehavedulyexaminedwhetherithasatendencyto，orbeinconsistentwith，ourrealhappiness:andtherefore，tillweareasmuchinformeduponthisinquiryastheweightofthematter，andthenatureofthecasedemands，weare，bythenecessityofpreferringandpursuingtruehappinessasourgreatestgood，obligedtosuspendthesatisfactionofourdesiresinparticularcases。
53。Powertosuspend。Thisisthehingeonwhichturnsthelibertyofintellectualbeings，intheirconstantendeavoursafter，andasteadyprosecutionoftruefelicity，-Thattheycansuspendthisprosecutioninparticularcases，tilltheyhavelookedbeforethem，andinformedthemselveswhetherthatparticularthingwhichisthenproposedordesiredlieinthewaytotheirmainend，andmakearealpartofthatwhichistheirgreatestgood。For，theinclinationandtendencyoftheirnaturetohappinessisanobligationandmotivetothem，totakecarenottomistakeormissit；andsonecessarilyputsthemuponcaution，deliberation，andwariness，inthedirectionoftheirparticularactions，whicharethemeanstoobtainit。Whatevernecessitydeterminestothepursuitofrealbliss，thesamenecessity，withthesameforce，establishessuspense，deliberation，andscrutinyofeachsuccessivedesire，whetherthesatisfactionofitdoesnotinterferewithourtruehappiness，andmisleadusfromit。This，asseemstome，isthegreatprivilegeoffiniteintellectualbeings；andIdesireitmaybewellconsidered，whetherthegreatinletandexerciseofallthelibertymenhave，arecapableof，orcanbeusefultothem，andthatwhereondependstheturnoftheiractions，doesnotlieinthis，-Thattheycansuspendtheirdesires，andstopthemfromdeterminingtheirwillstoanyaction，tilltheyhavedulyandfairlyexaminedthegoodandevilofit，asfarforthastheweightofthethingrequires。Thisweareabletodo；andwhenwehavedoneit，wehavedoneourduty，andallthatisinourpower；andindeedallthatneeds。For，sincethewillsupposesknowledgetoguideitschoice，allthatwecandoistoholdourwillsundetermined，tillwehaveexaminedthegoodandevilofwhatwedesire。Whatfollowsafterthat，followsinachainofconsequences，linkedonetoanother，alldependingonthelastdeterminationofthejudgment，which，whetheritshallbeuponahastyandprecipitateview，oruponadueandmatureexamination，isinourpower；experienceshowingus，thatinmostcases，weareabletosuspendthepresentsatisfactionofanydesire。
54。Governmentofourpassionstherightimprovementofliberty。Butifanyextremedisturbance(assometimesithappens)possessesourwholemind，aswhenthepainoftherack，animpetuousuneasiness，asoflove，anger，oranyotherviolentpassion，runningawaywithus，allowsusnotthelibertyofthought，andwearenotmastersenoughofourownmindstoconsiderthoroughlyandexaminefairly；-God，whoknowsourfrailty，pitiesourweakness，andrequiresofusnomorethanweareabletodo，andseeswhatwasandwhatwasnotinourpower，willjudgeasakindandmercifulFather。Buttheforbearanceofatoohastycompliancewithourdesires，themoderationandrestraintofourpassions，sothatourunderstandingsmaybefreetoexamine，andreasonunbiasedgiveitsjudgment，beingthatwhereonarightdirectionofourconducttotruehappinessdepends；itisinthisweshouldemployourchiefcareandendeavours。Inthisweshouldtakepainstosuittherelishofourmindstothetrueintrinsicgoodorillthatisinthings；andnotpermitanallowedorsupposedpossiblegreatandweightygoodtoslipoutofourthoughts，withoutleavinganyrelish，anydesireofitselfthere，till，byadueconsiderationofitstrueworth，wehaveformedappetitesinourmindssuitabletoit，andmadeourselvesuneasyinthewantofit，orinthefearoflosingit。Andhowmuchthisisineveryone’spower，bymakingresolutionstohimself，suchashemaykeep，iseasyforeveryonetotry。Norletanyonesay，hecannotgovernhispassions，norhinderthemfrombreakingout，andcarryinghimintoaction；forwhathecandobeforeaprinceoragreatman，hecandoalone，orinthepresenceofGod，ifhewill。
55。Howmencometopursuedifferent，andoftenevil，courses。
Fromwhathasbeensaid，itiseasytogiveanaccounthowitcomestopass，that，thoughallmendesirehappiness，yettheirwillscarrythemsocontrarily；andconsequentlysomeofthemtowhatisevil。AndtothisIsay，thatthevariousandcontrarychoicesthatmenmakeintheworlddonotarguethattheydonotallpursuegood；butthatthesamethingisnotgoodtoeverymanalike。Thisvarietyofpursuitsshows，thateveryonedoesnotplacehishappinessinthesamething，orchoosethesamewaytoit。Werealltheconcernsofmanterminatedinthislife，whyonefollowedstudyandknowledge，andanotherhawkingandhunting:whyonechoseluxuryanddebauchery，andanothersobrietyandriches，wouldnotbebecauseeveryoneofthesedidnotaimathisownhappiness；butbecausetheirhappinesswasplacedindifferentthings。Andthereforeitwasarightanswerofthephysiciantohispatientthathadsoreeyes:-Ifyouhavemorepleasureinthetasteofwinethanintheuseofyoursight，wineisgoodforyou；butifthepleasureofseeingbegreatertoyouthanthatofdrinking，wineisnaught。
56。Allmenseekhappiness，butnotofthesamesort。Themindhasadifferentrelish，aswellasthepalate；andyouwillasfruitlesslyendeavourtodelightallmenwithrichesorglory(whichyetsomemenplacetheirhappinessin)asyouwouldtosatisfyallmen’shungerwithcheeseorlobsters；which，thoughveryagreeableanddeliciousfaretosome，aretoothersextremelynauseousandoffensive:andmanypersonswouldwithreasonpreferthegripingofanhungrybellytothosedisheswhichareafeasttoothers。Henceitwas，Ithink，thatthephilosophersofolddidinvaininquire，whethersummumbonumconsistedinriches，orbodilydelights，orvirtue，orcontemplation:andtheymighthaveasreasonablydisputed，whetherthebestrelishweretobefoundinapples，plums，ornuts，andhavedividedthemselvesintosectsuponit。For，aspleasanttastesdependnotonthethingsthemselves，butontheiragreeablenesstothisorthatparticularpalate，whereinthereisgreatvariety；sothegreatesthappinessconsistsinthehavingthosethingswhichproducethegreatestpleasure，andintheabsenceofthosewhichcauseanydisturbance，anypain。Nowthese，todifferentmen，areverydifferentthings。If，therefore，meninthislifeonlyhavehope；ifinthislifeonlytheycanenjoy，itisnotstrangenorunreasonable，thattheyshouldseektheirhappinessbyavoidingallthingsthatdiseasethemhere，andbypursuingallthatdelightthem；whereinitwillbenowondertofindvarietyanddifference。Foriftherebenoprospectbeyondthegrave，theinferenceiscertainlyright-\"Letuseatanddrink，\"letusenjoywhatwe\"forto-morrowweshalldie。\"
This，Ithink，mayservetoshowusthereason，why，thoughallmen’sdesirestendtohappiness，yettheyarenotmovedbythesameobject。Menmaychoosedifferentthings，andyetallchooseright；
supposingthemonlylikeacompanyofpoorinsects；whereofsomearebees，delightedwithflowersandtheirsweetness；othersbeetles，delightedwithotherkindsofviands，whichhavingenjoyedforaseason，theywouldceasetobe，andexistnomoreforever。
57。Powertosuspendvolitionexplainsresponsibilityforillchoice。Thesethings，dulyweighed，willgiveus，asIthink，aclearviewintothestateofhumanliberty。Liberty，itisplain，consistsinapowertodo，ornottodo；todo，orforbeardoing，aswewill。Thiscannotbedenied。Butthisseemingtocomprehendonlytheactionsofamanconsecutivetovolition，itisfurtherinquired，-
Whetherhebeatlibertytowillorno？Andtothisithasbeenanswered，that，inmostcases，amanisnotatlibertytoforbeartheactofvolition:hemustexertanactofhiswill，wherebytheactionproposedismadetoexistornottoexist。Butyetthereisacasewhereinamanisatlibertyinrespectofwilling；andthatisthechoosingofaremotegoodasanendtobepursued。Hereamanmaysuspendtheactofhischoicefrombeingdeterminedfororagainstthethingproposed，tillhehasexaminedwhetheritbereallyofanature，initselfandconsequences，tomakehimhappyornot。For，whenhehasoncechosenit，andtherebyitisbecomeapartofhishappiness，itraisesdesire，andthatproportionablygiveshimuneasiness；whichdetermineshiswill，andsetshimatworkinpursuitofhischoiceonalloccasionsthatoffer。Andherewemayseehowitcomestopassthatamanmayjustlyincurpunishment，thoughitbecertainthat，inalltheparticularactionsthathewills，hedoes，andnecessarilydoes，willthatwhichhethenjudgestobegood。
For，thoughhiswillbealwaysdeterminedbythatwhichisjudgedgoodbyhisunderstanding，yetitexcuseshimnot；because，byatoohastychoiceofhisownmaking，hehasimposedonhimselfwrongmeasuresofgoodandevil；which，howeverfalseandfallacious，havethesameinfluenceonallhisfutureconduct，asiftheyweretrueandright。Hehasvitiatedhisownpalate，andmustbeanswerabletohimselfforthesicknessanddeaththatfollowsfromit。Theeternallawandnatureofthingsmustnotbealteredtocomplywithhisill-orderedchoice。Iftheneglectorabuseofthelibertyhehad，toexaminewhatwouldreallyandtrulymakeforhishappiness，misleadshim，themiscarriagesthatfollowonitmustbeimputedtohisownelection。Hehadapowertosuspendhisdetermination；itwasgivenhim，thathemightexamine，andtakecareofhisownhappiness，andlookthathewerenotdeceived。Andhecouldneverjudge，thatitwasbettertobedeceivedthannot，inamatterofsogreatandnearconcernment。
58。Whymenchoosewhatmakesthemmiserable。Whathasbeensaidmayalsodiscovertousthereasonwhymeninthisworldpreferdifferentthings，andpursuehappinessbycontrarycourses。Butyet，sincemenarealwaysconstantandinearnestinmattersofhappinessandmisery，thequestionstillremains，Howmencomeoftentoprefertheworsetothebetter；andtochoosethat，which，bytheirownconfession，hasmadethemmiserable？
59。Thecausesofthis。Toaccountforthevariousandcontrarywaysmentake，thoughallaimatbeinghappy，wemustconsiderwhencethevariousuneasinessesthatdeterminethewill，inthepreferenceofeachvoluntaryaction，havetheirrise:
(1)Frombodilypain。Someofthemcomefromcausesnotinourpower；suchasareoftenthepainsofthebodyfromwant，disease，oroutwardinjuries，astherack，&c。；which，whenpresentandviolent，operateforthemostpartforciblyonthewill，andturnthecoursesofmen’slivesfromvirtue，piety，andreligion，andwhatbeforetheyjudgedtoleadtohappiness；everyonenotendeavouring，or，throughdisuse，notbeingable，bythecontemplationofremoteandfuturegood，toraiseinhimselfdesiresofthemstrongenoughtocounterbalancetheuneasinesshefeelsinthosebodilytorments，andtokeephiswillsteadyinthechoiceofthoseactionswhichleadtofuturehappiness。Aneighbouringcountryhasbeenoflateatragicaltheatrefromwhichwemightfetchinstances，ifthereneededany，andtheworlddidnotinallcountriesandagesfurnishexamplesenoughtoconfirmthatreceivedobservation，Necessitascogitadturpia；andthereforethereisgreatreasonforustopray，\"Leadusnotintotemptation。\"
(2)Fromwrongdesiresarisingfromwrongjudgments。Otheruneasinessesarisefromourdesiresofabsentgood；whichdesiresalwaysbearproportionto，anddependon，thejudgmentwemake，andtherelishwehaveofanyabsentgood；inbothwhichweareapttobevariouslymisled，andthatbyourownfault。
60。Ourjudgmentofpresentgoodorevilalwaysright。Inthefirstplace，Ishallconsiderthewrongjudgmentsmenmakeoffuturegoodandevil，wherebytheirdesiresaremisled。For，astopresenthappinessandmisery，whenthatalonecomesintoconsideration，andtheconsequencesarequiteremoved，amanneverchoosesamiss:heknowswhatbestpleaseshim，andthatheactuallyprefers。Thingsintheirpresentenjoymentarewhattheyseem:theapparentandrealgoodare，inthiscase，alwaysthesame。For，thepainorpleasurebeingjustsogreatandnogreaterthanitisfelt，thepresentgoodorevilisreallysomuchasitappears。Andthereforewereeveryactionofoursconcludedwithinitself，anddrewnoconsequencesafterit，weshouldundoubtedlynevererrinourchoiceofgood:weshouldalwaysinfalliblypreferthebest。Werethepainsofhonestindustry，andofstarvingwithhungerandcoldsettogetherbeforeus，nobodywouldbeindoubtwhichtochoose:werethesatisfactionofalustandthejoysofheavenofferedatoncetoanyone’spresentpossession，hewouldnotbalance，orerrinthedeterminationofhischoice。
61。Ourwrongjudgmentshaveregardtofuturegoodandevilonly。
Butsinceourvoluntaryactionscarrynotallthehappinessandmiserythatdependonthemalongwiththemintheirpresentperformance，butaretheprecedentcausesofgoodandevil，whichtheydrawafterthem，andbringuponus，whentheythemselvesarepastandceasetobe；ourdesireslookbeyondourpresentenjoyments，andcarrythemindouttoabsentgood，accordingtothenecessitywhichwethinkthereisofit，tothemakingorincreaseofourhappiness。Itisouropinionofsuchanecessitythatgivesititsattraction:withoutthat，wearenotmovedbyabsentgood。For，inthisnarrowscantlingofcapacitywhichweareaccustomedtoandsensibleofhere，whereinweenjoybutonepleasureatonce，which，whenalluneasinessisaway，is，whilstitlasts，sufficienttomakeusthinkourselveshappy，itisnotallremoteandevenapparentgoodthataffectsus。Becausetheindolencyandenjoymentwehave，sufficingforourpresenthappiness，wedesirenottoventurethechange；sincewejudgethatwearehappyalready，beingcontent，andthatisenough。Forwhoiscontentishappy。Butassoonasanynewuneasinesscomesin，thishappinessisdisturbed，andwearesetafreshonworkinthepursuitofhappiness。
62。Fromawrongjudgmentofwhatmakesanecessarypartoftheirhappiness。Theiraptnessthereforetoconcludethattheycanbehappywithoutit，isonegreatoccasionthatmenoftenarenotraisedtothedesireofthegreatestabsentgood。For，whilstsuchthoughtspossessthem，thejoysofafuturestatemovethemnot；
theyhavelittleconcernoruneasinessaboutthem；andthewill，freefromthedeterminationofsuchdesires，islefttothepursuitofnearersatisfactions，andtotheremovalofthoseuneasinesseswhichitthenfeels，initswantofandlongingsafterthem。Changebutaman’sviewofthesethings；lethimseethatvirtueandreligionarenecessarytohishappiness；lethimlookintothefuturestateofblissormisery，andseethereGod，therighteousjudge，readyto\"rendertoeverymanaccordingtohisdeeds；tothemwhobypatientcontinuanceinwell-doingseekforglory，andhonour，andimmortality，eternallife；butuntoeverysoulthatdothevil，indignationandwrath，tribulationandanguish。\"Tohim，Isay，whohathaprospectofthedifferentstateofperfecthappinessormiserythatattendsallmenafterthislife，dependingontheirbehaviourhere，themeasuresofgoodandevilthatgovernhischoicearemightilychanged。For，sincenothingofpleasureandpaininthislifecanbearanyproportiontotheendlesshappinessorexquisitemiseryofanimmortalsoulhereafter，actionsinhispowerwillhavetheirpreference，notaccordingtothetransientpleasureorpainthataccompaniesorfollowsthemhere，butastheyservetosecurethatperfectdurablehappinesshereafter。
63。Amoreparticularaccountofwrongjudgments。But，toaccountmoreparticularlyforthemiserythatmenoftenbringonthemselves，notwithstandingthattheydoallinearnestpursuehappiness，wemustconsiderhowthingscometoberepresentedtoourdesiresunderdeceitfulappearances:andthatisbythejudgmentpronouncingwronglyconcerningthem。Toseehowfarthisreaches，andwhatarethecausesofwrongjudgment，wemustrememberthatthingsarejudgedgoodorbadinadoublesense:-
First，Thatwhichisproperlygoodorbad，isnothingbutbarelypleasureorpain。
Secondly，Butbecausenotonlypresentpleasureandpain，butthatalsowhichisaptbyitsefficacyorconsequencestobringituponusatadistance，isaproperobjectofourdesires，andapttomoveacreaturethathasforesight；thereforethingsalsothatdrawafterthempleasureandpain，areconsideredasgoodandevil。
64。Noonechoosesmiserywillingly，butonlybywrongjudgment。Thewrongjudgmentthatmisleadsus，andmakesthewilloftenfastenontheworseside，liesinmisreportinguponthevariouscomparisonsofthese。ThewrongjudgmentIamherespeakingofisnotwhatonemanmaythinkofthedeterminationofanother，butwhateverymanhimselfmustconfesstobewrong。For，sinceIlayitforacertainground，thateveryintelligentbeingreallyseekshappiness，whichconsistsintheenjoymentofpleasure，withoutanyconsiderablemixtureofuneasiness；itisimpossibleanyoneshouldwillinglyputintohisowndraughtanybitteringredient，orleaveoutanythinginhispowerthatwouldtendtohissatisfaction，andthecompletingofhishappiness，butonlybyawrongjudgment。Ishallnotherespeakofthatmistakewhichistheconsequenceofinvincibleerror，whichscarcedeservesthenameofwrongjudgment；butofthatwrongjudgmentwhicheverymanhimselfmustconfesstobeso。
65。Menmayerrincomparingpresentandfuture。(1)Therefore，astopresentpleasureandpain，themind，ashasbeensaid，nevermistakesthatwhichisreallygoodorevil；thatwhichisthegreaterpleasure，orthegreaterpain，isreallyjustasitappears。
But，thoughpresentpleasureandpainshowtheirdifferenceanddegreessoplainlyasnottoleaveroomtomistake；yet，whenwecomparepresentpleasureorpainwithfuture，(whichisusuallythecaseinmostimportantdeterminationsofthewill，)weoftenmakewrongjudgmentsofthem；takingourmeasuresofthemindifferentpositionsofdistance。Objectsnearourviewareapttobethoughtgreaterthanthoseofalargersizethataremoreremote。Andsoitiswithpleasuresandpains:thepresentisapttocarryit；andthoseatadistancehavethedisadvantageinthecomparison。Thusmostmen，likespendthriftheirs，areapttojudgealittleinhandbetterthanagreatdealtocome；andso，forsmallmattersinpossession，partwithgreateronesinreversion。Butthatthisisawrongjudgmenteveryonemustallow，lethispleasureconsistinwhateveritwill:
sincethatwhichisfuturewillcertainlycometobepresent；andthen，havingthesameadvantageofnearness，willshowitselfinitsfulldimensions，anddiscoverhiswilfulmistakewhojudgedofitbyunequalmeasures。Werethepleasureofdrinkingaccompanied，theverymomentamantakesoffhisglass，withthatsickstomachandachingheadwhich，insomemen，aresuretofollownotmanyhoursafter，Ithinknobody，whateverpleasurehehadinhiscups，would，ontheseconditions，everletwinetouchhislips；whichyethedailyswallows，andtheevilsidecomestobechosenonlybythefallacyofalittledifferenceintime。But，ifpleasureorpaincanbesolessenedonlybyafewhours’removal，howmuchmorewillitbesobyafurtherdistance，toamanthatwillnot，byarightjudgment，dowhattimewill，i。e。bringithomeuponhimself，andconsideritaspresent，andtheretakeitstruedimensions？Thisisthewayweusuallyimposeonourselves，inrespectofbarepleasureandpain，orthetruedegreesofhappinessormisery:thefuturelosesitsjustproportion，andwhatispresentobtainsthepreferenceasthegreater。Imentionnotherethewrongjudgment，wherebytheabsentarenotonlylessened，butreducedtoperfectnothing；whenmenenjoywhattheycaninpresent，andmakesureofthat，concludingamissthatnoevilwillthencefollow。Forthatliesnotincomparingthegreatnessoffuturegoodandevil，whichisthatweareherespeakingof；butinanothersortofwrongjudgment，whichisconcerninggoodorevil，asitisconsideredtobethecauseandprocurementofpleasureorpainthatwillfollowfromit。
66。Causesofourjudgingamisswhenwecomparepresentpleasureandpainwithfuture。Thecauseofourjudgingamiss，whenwecompareourpresentpleasureorpainwithfuture，seemstometobetheweakandnarrowconstitutionofourminds。Wecannotwellenjoytwopleasuresatonce；muchlessanypleasurealmost，whilstpainpossessesus。Thepresentpleasure，ifitbenotverylanguid，andalmostnoneatall，fillsournarrowsouls，andsotakesupthewholemindthatitscarceleavesanythoughtofthingsabsent:orifamongourpleasurestherearesomewhicharenotstrongenoughtoexcludetheconsiderationofthingsatadistance，yetwehavesogreatanabhorrenceofpain，thatalittleofitextinguishesallourpleasures。Alittlebittermingledinourcup，leavesnorelishofthesweet。Henceitcomesthat，atanyrate，wedesiretoberidofthepresentevil，whichweareapttothinknothingabsentcanequal；because，underthepresentpain，wefindnotourselvescapableofanytheleastdegreeofhappiness。Men’sdailycomplaintsarealoudproofofthis:thepainthatanyoneactuallyfeelsisstillofallothertheworst；anditiswithanguishtheycryout，-
\"Anyratherthanthis:nothingcanbesointolerableaswhatInowsuffer。\"Andthereforeourwholeendeavoursandthoughtsareintenttogetridofthepresentevil，beforeallthings，asthefirstnecessaryconditiontoourhappiness；letwhatwillfollow。Nothing，aswepassionatelythink，canexceed，oralmostequal，theuneasinessthatsitssoheavyuponus。Andbecausetheabstinencefromapresentpleasurethatoffersitselfisapain，nay，oftentimesaverygreatone，thedesirebeinginflamedbyanearandtemptingobject，itisnowonderthatthatoperatesafterthesamemannerpaindoes，andlessensinourthoughtswhatisfuture；andsoforcesus，asitwereblindfold，intoitsembraces。
67。Absentgoodunabletocounterbalancepresentuneasiness。Addtothis，thatabsentgood，or，whichisthesamething，futurepleasure，-especiallyifofasortweareunacquaintedwith，-seldomisabletocounterbalanceanyuneasiness，eitherofpainordesire，whichispresent。For，itsgreatnessbeingnomorethanwhatshallbereallytastedwhenenjoyed，menareaptenoughtolessenthat；tomakeitgiveplacetoanypresentdesire；andconcludewiththemselvesthat，whenitcomestotrial，itmaypossiblynotanswerthereportoropinionthatgenerallypassesofit:theyhavingoftenfoundthat，notonlywhatothershavemagnified，butevenwhattheythemselveshaveenjoyedwithgreatpleasureanddelightatonetime，hasprovedinsipidornauseousatanother；andthereforetheyseenothinginitforwhichtheyshouldforegoapresentenjoyment。Butthatthisisafalsewayofjudging，whenappliedtothehappinessofanotherlife，theymustconfess；unlesstheywillsay，Godcannotmakethosehappyhedesignstobeso。Forthatbeingintendedforastateofhappiness，itmustcertainlybeagreeabletoeveryone’swishanddesire:couldwesupposetheirrelishesasdifferentthereastheyarehere，yetthemannainheavenwillsuiteveryone’spalate。Thusmuchofthewrongjudgmentwemakeofpresentandfuturepleasureandpain，whentheyarecomparedtogether，andsotheabsentconsideredasfuture。
68。Wrongjudgmentinconsideringconsequencesofactions。(II)Astothingsgoodorbadintheirconsequences，andbytheaptnessthatisinthemtoprocureusgoodorevilinthefuture，wejudgeamissseveralways。
1。Whenwejudgethatsomuchevildoesnotreallydependonthemasintruththeredoes。
2。Whenwejudgethat，thoughtheconsequencebeofthatmoment，yetitisnotofthatcertainty，butthatitmayotherwisefallout，orelsebysomemeansbeavoided；asbyindustry，address，change，repentance，&c。
Thatthesearewrongwaysofjudging，wereeasytoshowineveryparticular，ifIwouldexaminethematlargesingly:butIshallonlymentionthisingeneral，viz。thatitisaverywrongandirrationalwayofproceeding，toventureagreatergoodforaless，uponuncertainguesses；andbeforeadueexaminationbemade，proportionabletotheweightinessofthematter，andtheconcernmentitistousnottomistake。ThisIthinkeveryonemustconfess，especiallyifheconsiderstheusualcauseofthiswrongjudgment，whereofthesefollowingaresome:-
69。Causesofthis。(i)Ignorance:Hethatjudgeswithoutinforminghimselftotheutmostthatheiscapable，cannotacquithimselfofjudgingamiss。
(ii)Inadvertency:Whenamanoverlookseventhatwhichhedoesknow。Thisisanaffectedandpresentignorance，whichmisleadsourjudgmentsasmuchastheother。Judgingis，asitwere，balancinganaccount，anddeterminingonwhichsidetheoddslie。Ifthereforeeithersidebehuddledupinhaste，andseveralofthesumsthatshouldhavegoneintothereckoningbeoverlookedandleftout，thisprecipitancycausesaswrongajudgmentasifitwereaperfectignorance。Thatwhichmostcommonlycausesthisis，theprevalencyofsomepresentpleasureorpain，heightenedbyourfeeblepassionatenature，moststronglywroughtonbywhatispresent。Tocheckthisprecipitancy，ourunderstandingandreasonweregivenus，ifwewillmakearightuseofthem，tosearchandsee，andthenjudgethereupon。Withoutliberty，theunderstandingwouldbetonopurpose:andwithoutunderstanding，liberty(ifitcouldbe)wouldsignifynothing。Ifamanseeswhatwoulddohimgoodorharm，whatwouldmakehimhappyormiserable，withoutbeingabletomovehimselfonesteptowardsorfromit，whatishethebetterforseeing？
Andhethatisatlibertytorambleinperfectdarkness，whatishislibertybetterthanifheweredrivenupanddownasabubblebytheforceofthewind？Thebeingactedbyablindimpulsefromwithout，orfromwithin，islittleodds。Thefirst，therefore，andgreatuseoflibertyistohinderblindprecipitancy；theprincipalexerciseoffreedomistostandstill，opentheeyes，lookabout，andtakeaviewoftheconsequenceofwhatwearegoingtodo，asmuchastheweightofthematterrequires。Howmuchslothandnegligence，heatandpassion，theprevalencyoffashionoracquiredindispositionsdoseverallycontribute，onoccasion，tothesewrongjudgments，Ishallnotherefurtherinquire。Ishallonlyaddoneotherfalsejudgment，whichIthinknecessarytomention，becauseperhapsitislittletakennoticeof，thoughofgreatinfluence。
70。Wrongjudgmentofwhatisnecessarytoourhappiness。Allmendesirehappiness，thatispastdoubt:but，ashasbeenalreadyobserved，whentheyareridofpain，theyareapttotakeupwithanypleasureathand，orthatcustomhasendearedtothem；torestsatisfiedinthat；andsobeinghappy，tillsomenewdesire，bymakingthemuneasy，disturbsthathappiness，andshowsthemthattheyarenotso，theylooknofurther；noristhewilldeterminedtoanyactioninpursuitofanyotherknownorapparentgood。Forsincewefindthatwecannotenjoyallsortsofgood，butoneexcludesanother；wedonotfixourdesiresoneveryapparentgreatergood，unlessitbejudgedtobenecessarytoourhappiness:ifwethinkwecanbehappywithoutit，itmovesusnot。Thisisanotheroccasiontomenofjudgingwrong；
whentheytakenotthattobenecessarytotheirhappinesswhichreallyisso。Thismistakemisleadsus，bothinthechoiceofthegoodweaimat，andveryofteninthemeanstoit，whenitisaremotegood。But，whichwayeveritbe，eitherbyplacingitwherereallyitisnot，orbyneglectingthemeansasnotnecessarytoit；-whenamanmisseshisgreatend，happiness，hewillacknowledgehejudgednotright。Thatwhichcontributestothismistakeistherealorsupposedunpleasantnessoftheactionswhicharethewaytothisend；itseemingsopreposterousathingtomen，tomakethemselvesunhappyinordertohappiness，thattheydonoteasilybringthemselvestoit。
71。Wecanchangetheagreeablenessordisagreeablenessinthings。
Thelastinquiry，therefore，concerningthismatteris，-Whetheritbeinaman’spowertochangethepleasantnessandunpleasantnessthataccompaniesanysortofaction？Andastothat，itisplain，inmanycaseshecan。Menmayandshouldcorrecttheirpalates，andgiverelishtowhateitherhas，ortheysupposehasnone。Therelishofthemindisasvariousasthatofthebody，andlikethattoomaybealtered；anditisamistaketothinkthatmencannotchangethedispleasingnessorindifferencythatisinactionsintopleasureanddesire，iftheywilldobutwhatisintheirpower。Adueconsiderationwilldoitinsomecases；andpractice，application，andcustominmost。Breadortobaccomaybeneglectedwheretheyareshowntobeusefultohealth，becauseofanindifferencyordisrelishtothem；reasonandconsiderationatfirstrecommends，andbeginstheirtrial，andusefinds，orcustommakesthempleasant。Thatthisissoinvirtuetoo，isverycertain。Actionsarepleasingordispleasing，eitherinthemselves，orconsideredasameanstoagreaterandmoredesirableend。Theeatingofawell-seasoneddish，suitedtoaman’spalate，maymovethemindbythedelightitselfthataccompaniestheeating，withoutreferencetoanyotherend；towhichtheconsiderationofthepleasurethereisinhealthandstrength(towhichthatmeatissubservient)mayaddanewgusto，abletomakeusswallowanill-relishedpotion。Inthelatterofthese，anyactionisrenderedmoreorlesspleasing，onlybythecontemplationoftheend，andthebeingmoreorlesspersuadedofitstendencytoit，ornecessaryconnexionwithit:butthepleasureoftheactionitselfisbestacquiredorincreasedbyuseandpractice。Trialsoftenreconcileustothat，whichatadistancewelookedonwithaversion；andbyrepetitionswearusintoalikingofwhatpossibly，inthefirstessay，displeasedus。Habitshavepowerfulcharms，andputsostrongattractionsofeasinessandpleasureintowhatweaccustomourselvesto，thatwecannotforbeartodo，oratleastbeeasyintheomissionof，actions，whichhabitualpracticehassuited，andtherebyrecommendstous。Thoughthisbeveryvisible，andeveryone’sexperienceshowshimhecandoso；yetitisapartintheconductofmentowardstheirhappiness，neglectedtoadegree，thatitwillbepossiblyentertainedasaparadox，ifitbesaid，thatmencanmakethingsoractionsmoreorlesspleasingtothemselves；andtherebyremedythat，towhichonemayjustlyimputeagreatdealoftheirwandering。Fashionandthecommonopinionhavingsettledwrongnotions，andeducationandcustomillhabits，thejustvaluesofthingsaremisplaced，andthepalatesofmencorrupted。Painsshouldbetakentorectifythese；andcontraryhabitschangeourpleasures，andgivearelishtothatwhichisnecessaryorconducivetoourhappiness。Thiseveryonemustconfesshecando；andwhenhappinessislost，andmiseryovertakeshim，hewillconfesshedidamissinneglectingit，andcondemnhimselfforit；andIaskeveryone，whetherhehasnotoftendoneso？
72。Preferenceofvicetovirtueamanifestwrongjudgment。I
shallnotnowenlargeanyfurtheronthewrongjudgmentsandneglectofwhatisintheirpower，wherebymenmisleadthemselves。Thiswouldmakeavolume，andisnotmybusiness。Butwhateverfalsenotions，orshamefulneglectofwhatisintheirpower，mayputmenoutoftheirwaytohappiness，anddistractthem，aswesee，intosodifferentcoursesoflife，thisyetiscertain，thatmorality，establisheduponitstruefoundations，cannotbutdeterminethechoiceinanyonethatwillbutconsider:andhethatwillnotbesofararationalcreatureastoreflectseriouslyuponinfinitehappinessandmisery，mustneedscondemnhimselfasnotmakingthatuseofhisunderstandingheshould。Therewardsandpunishmentsofanotherlife，whichtheAlmightyhasestablished，astheenforcementsofhislaw，areofweightenoughtodeterminethechoice，againstwhateverpleasureorpainthislifecanshow，whentheeternalstateisconsideredbutinitsbarepossibility，whichnobodycanmakeanydoubtof。Hethatwillallowexquisiteandendlesshappinesstobebutthepossibleconsequenceofagoodlifehere，andthecontrarystatethepossiblerewardofabadone，mustownhimselftojudgeverymuchamissifhedoesnotconclude，-Thatavirtuouslife，withthecertainexpectationofeverlastingbliss，whichmaycome，istobepreferredtoaviciousone，withthefearofthatdreadfulstateofmisery，whichitisverypossiblemayovertaketheguilty；or，atbest，theterribleuncertainhopeofannihilation。Thisisevidentlyso，thoughthevirtuouslifeherehadnothingbutpain，andtheviciouscontinualpleasure:whichyetis，forthemostpart，quiteotherwise，andwickedmenhavenotmuchtheoddstobragof，evenintheirpresentpossession；nay，allthingsrightlyconsidered，have，Ithink，eventheworseparthere。Butwheninfinitehappinessisputintoonescale，againstinfinitemiseryintheother；iftheworstthatcomestothepiousman，ifhemistakes，bethebestthatthewickedcanattainto，ifhebeintheright，whocanwithoutmadnessruntheventure？Whoinhiswitswouldchoosetocomewithinapossibilityofinfinitemisery；whichifhemiss，thereisyetnothingtobegotbythathazard？Whereas，ontheotherside，thesobermanventuresnothingagainstinfinitehappinesstobegot，ifhisexpectationcomesnottopass。Ifthegoodmanbeintheright，heiseternallyhappy；ifhemistakes，he’snotmiserable，hefeelsnothing。Ontheotherside，ifthewickedmanbeintheright，heisnothappy；ifhemistakes，heisinfinitelymiserable。Mustitnotbeamostmanifestwrongjudgmentthatdoesnotpresentlyseetowhichside，inthiscase，thepreferenceistobegiven？Ihaveforbornetomentionanythingofthecertaintyorprobabilityofafuturestate，designingheretoshowthewrongjudgmentthatanyonemustallowhemakes，uponhisownprinciples，laidhowhepleases，whopreferstheshortpleasuresofaviciouslifeuponanyconsideration，whilstheknows，andcannotbutbecertain，thatafuturelifeisatleastpossible。
73。Recapitulation-libertyofindifferency。Toconcludethisinquiryintohumanliberty，which，asitstoodbefore，Imyselffromthebeginningfearing，andaveryjudiciousfriendofmine，sincethepublication，suspectingtohavesomemistakeinit，thoughhecouldnotparticularlyshowitme，Iwasputuponastricterreviewofthischapter。WhereinlightinguponaveryeasyandscarceobservableslipIhadmade，inputtingoneseeminglyindifferentwordforanotherthatdiscoveryopenedtomethispresentview，whichhere，inthissecondedition，Isubmittothelearnedworld，andwhich，inshort，isthis:Libertyisapowertoactornottoact，accordingastheminddirects。Apowertodirecttheoperativefacultiestomotionorrestinparticularinstancesisthatwhichwecallthewill。Thatwhichinthetrainofourvoluntaryactionsdeterminesthewilltoanychangeofoperationissomepresentuneasiness，whichis，oratleastisalwaysaccompaniedwiththatofdesire。Desireisalwaysmovedbyevil，toflyit:becauseatotalfreedomfrompainalwaysmakesanecessarypartofourhappiness:
buteverygood，nay，everygreatergood，doesnotconstantlymovedesire，becauseitmaynotmake，ormaynotbetakentomake，partofourhappiness。Forallthatwedesire，isonlytobehappy。But，thoughthisgeneraldesireofhappinessoperatesconstantlyandinvariably，yetthesatisfactionofanyparticulardesirecanbesuspendedfromdeterminingthewilltoanysubservientaction，tillwehavematurelyexaminedwhethertheparticularapparentgoodwhichwethendesiremakesapartofourrealhappiness，orbeconsistentorinconsistentwithit。Theresultofourjudgmentuponthatexaminationiswhatultimatelydeterminestheman；whocouldnotbefreeifhiswillweredeterminedbyanythingbuthisowndesire，guidedbyhisownjudgment。Iknowthatliberty，bysome，isplacedinanindifferencyoftheman；antecedenttothedeterminationofhiswill。Iwishtheywholaysomuchstressonsuchanantecedentindifferency，astheycallit，hadtoldusplainly，whetherthissupposedindifferencybeantecedenttothethoughtandjudgmentoftheunderstanding，aswellastothedecreeofthewill。Foritisprettyhardtostateitbetweenthem，i。e。immediatelyafterthejudgmentoftheunderstanding，andbeforethedeterminationofthewill:becausethedeterminationofthewillimmediatelyfollowsthejudgmentoftheunderstanding:andtoplacelibertyinanindifferency，antecedenttothethoughtandjudgmentoftheunderstanding，seemstometoplacelibertyinastateofdarkness，whereinwecanneitherseenorsayanythingofit；atleastitplacesitinasubjectincapableofit，noagentbeingallowedcapableofliberty，butinconsequenceofthoughtandjudgment。Iamnotniceaboutphrases，andthereforeconsenttosaywiththosethatlovetospeakso，thatlibertyisplacedinindifferency，butitisanindifferencywhichremainsafterthejudgmentoftheunderstanding，yea，evenafterthedeterminationofthewill:andthatisanindifferencynotoftheman，(forafterhehasoncejudgedwhichisbest，viz。todoorforbear，heisnolongerindifferent，)butanindifferencyoftheoperativepowersoftheman，whichremainingequallyabletooperateortoforbearoperatingafterasbeforethedecreeofthewill，areinastate，which，ifonepleases，maybecalledindifferency；andasfarasthisindifferencyreaches，amanisfree，andnofurther:v。g。I
havetheabilitytomovemyhand，ortoletitrest；thatoperativepowerisindifferenttomoveornottomovemyhand。Iamthen，inthatrespectperfectlyfree；mywilldeterminesthatoperativepowertorest:Iamyetfree，becausetheindifferencyofthatmyoperativepowertoact，ornottoact，stillremains；thepowerofmovingmyhandisnotatallimpairedbythedeterminationofmywill，whichatpresentordersrest；theindifferencyofthatpowertoact，ornottoact，isjustasitwasbefore，aswillappear，ifthewillputsittothetrial，byorderingthecontrary。Butif，duringtherestofmyhand，itbeseizedwithasuddenpalsy，theindifferencyofthatoperativepowerisgone，andwithitmyliberty；Ihavenolongerfreedominthatrespect，butamunderanecessityoflettingmyhandrest。Ontheotherside，ifmyhandbeputintomotionbyaconvulsion，theindifferencyofthatoperativefacultyistakenawaybythatmotion；andmylibertyinthatcaseislost，forIamunderanecessityofhavingmyhandmove。Ihaveaddedthis，toshowinwhatsortofindifferencylibertyseemstometoconsist，andnotinanyother，realorimaginary。
74。Activeandpassivepower，inmotionsandinthinking。Truenotionsconcerningthenatureandextentoflibertyareofsogreatimportance，thatIhopeIshallbepardonedthisdigression，whichmyattempttoexplainithasledmeinto。Theideasofwill，volition，liberty，andnecessity，inthisChapterofPower，camenaturallyinmyway。InaformereditionofthisTreatiseIgaveanaccountofmythoughtsconcerningthem，accordingtothelightIthenhad。Andnow，asaloveroftruth，andnotaworshipperofmyowndoctrines，Iownsomechangeofmyopinion；whichIthinkIhavediscoveredgroundfor。InwhatIfirstwrit，Iwithanunbiasedindifferencyfollowedtruth，whitherIthoughtsheledme。Butneitherbeingsovainastofancyinfallibility，norsodisingenuousastodissemblemymistakesforfearofblemishingmyreputation，Ihave，withthesamesinceredesignfortruthonly，notbeenashamedtopublishwhatasevererinquiryhassuggested。Itisnotimpossiblebutthatsomemaythinkmyformernotionsright；andsome(asIhavealreadyfound)theselatter；andsomeneither。Ishallnotatallwonderatthisvarietyinmen’sopinions:impartialdeductionsofreasonincontrovertedpointsbeingsorare，andexactonesinabstractnotionsnotsoveryeasy，especiallyifofanylength。And，therefore，Ishouldthinkmyselfnotalittlebeholdentoanyone，whowould，upontheseoranyothergrounds，fairlyclearthissubjectoflibertyfromanydifficultiesthatmayyetremain。
BeforeIclosethischapter，itmayperhapsbetoourpurpose，andhelptogiveusclearerconceptionsaboutpower，ifwemakeourthoughtstakealittlemoreexactsurveyofaction。Ihavesaidabove，thatwehaveideasbutoftwosortsofaction，viz。motionandthinking。These，intruth，thoughcalledandcountedactions，yet，ifnearlyconsidered，willnotbefoundtobealwaysperfectlyso。
For，ifImistakenot，thereareinstancesofbothkinds，which，upondueconsideration，willbefoundratherpassionsthanactions；
andconsequentlysofartheeffectsbarelyofpassivepowersinthosesubjects，whichyetontheiraccountsarethoughtagents。For，intheseinstances，thesubstancethathathmotionorthoughtreceivestheimpression，wherebyitisputintothataction，purelyfromwithout，andsoactsmerelybythecapacityithastoreceivesuchanimpressionfromsomeexternalagent；andsuchpowerisnotproperlyanactivepower，butamerepassivecapacityinthesubject。Sometimesthesubstanceoragentputsitselfintoactionbyitsownpower，andthisisproperlyactivepower。Whatsoevermodificationasubstancehas，wherebyitproducesanyeffect，thatiscalledaction:v。g。asolidsubstance，bymotion，operatesonoraltersthesensibleideasofanothersubstance，andthereforethismodificationofmotionwecallaction。Butyetthismotioninthatsolidsubstanceis，whenrightlyconsidered，butapassion，ifitreceiveditonlyfromsomeexternalagent。Sothattheactivepowerofmotionisinnosubstancewhichcannotbeginmotioninitselforinanothersubstancewhenatrest。Solikewiseinthinking，apowertoreceiveideasorthoughtsfromtheoperationofanyexternalsubstanceiscalledapowerofthinking:butthisisbutapassivepower，orcapacity。Buttobeabletobringintoviewideasoutofsightatone’sownchoice，andtocomparewhichofthemonethinksfit，thisisanactivepower。Thisreflectionmaybeofsomeusetopreserveusfrommistakesaboutpowersandactions，whichgrammar，andthecommonframeoflanguages，maybeapttoleadusinto。Sincewhatissignifiedbyverbsthatgrammarianscallactive，doesnotalwayssignifyaction:v。g。thisproposition:Iseethemoon，orastar，orI
feeltheheatofthesun，thoughexpressedbyaverbactive，doesnotsignifyanyactioninme，wherebyIoperateonthosesubstances，butonlythereceptionoftheideasoflight，roundness，andheat；
whereinIamnotactive，butbarelypassive，andcannot，inthatpositionofmyeyesorbody，avoidreceivingthem。ButwhenIturnmyeyesanotherway，orremovemybodyoutofthesunbeams，Iamproperlyactive；becauseofmyownchoice，byapowerwithinmyself，I
putmyselfintothatmotion。Suchanactionistheproductofactivepower。
75。Summaryofouroriginalideas。AndthusIhave，inashortdraught，givenaviewofouroriginalideas，fromwhencealltherestarederived，andofwhichtheyaremadeup；which，ifIwouldconsiderasaphilosopher，andexamineonwhatcausestheydepend，andofwhattheyaremade，Ibelievetheyallmightbereducedtotheseveryfewprimaryandoriginalones，viz。
Extension，Solidity，Mobility，orthepowerofbeingmoved；whichbyoursenseswereceivefrombody:
Perceptivity，orthepowerofperception，orthinking；
Motivity，orthepowerofmoving:whichbyreflectionwereceivefromourminds。
Icraveleavetomakeuseofthesetwonewwords，toavoidthedangerofbeingmistakenintheuseofthosewhichareequivocal。
TowhichifweaddExistence，Duration，Number，whichbelongbothtotheoneandtheother，wehave，perhaps，alltheoriginalideasonwhichtherestdepend。Forbythese，I
imagine，mightbeexplainedthenatureofcolours，sounds，tastes，smells，andallotherideaswehave，ifwehadbutfacultiesacuteenoughtoperceivetheseverallymodifiedextensionsandmotionsoftheseminutebodies，whichproducethoseseveralsensationsinus。Butmypresentpurposebeingonlytoinquireintotheknowledgethemindhasofthings，bythoseideasandappearanceswhichGodhasfittedittoreceivefromthem，andhowthemindcomesbythatknowledge；
ratherthanintotheircausesormannerofproduction，Ishallnot，contrarytothedesignofthisEssay，setmyselftoinquirephilosophicallyintothepeculiarconstitutionofbodies，andtheconfigurationofparts，wherebytheyhavethepowertoproduceinustheideasoftheirsensiblequalities。Ishallnotenteranyfurtherintothatdisquisition；itsufficingtomypurposetoobserve，thatgoldorsaffronhasapowertoproduceinustheideaofyellow，andsnowormilk，theideaofwhite，whichwecanonlyhavebyoursight；withoutexaminingthetextureofthepartsofthosebodies，ortheparticularfiguresormotionoftheparticleswhichreboundfromthem，tocauseinusthatparticularsensation:though，whenwegobeyondthebareideasinourminds，andwouldinquireintotheircauses，wecannotconceiveanythingelsetobeinanysensibleobject，wherebyitproducesdifferentideasinus，butthedifferentbulk，figure，number，texture，andmotionofitsinsensibleparts。
ChapterXXII
OfMixedModes1。Mixedmodes，what。Havingtreatedofsimplemodesintheforegoingchapters，andgivenseveralinstancesofsomeofthemostconsiderableofthem，toshowwhattheyare，andhowwecomebythem；wearenowinthenextplacetoconsiderthosewecallmixedmodes；sucharethecomplexideaswemarkbythenamesobligation，drunkenness，alie，&c。；whichconsistingofseveralcombinationsofsimpleideasofdifferentkinds，Ihavecalledmixedmodes，todistinguishthemfromthemoresimplemodes，whichconsistonlyofsimpleideasofthesamekind。Thesemixedmodes，beingalsosuchcombinationsofsimpleideasasarenotlookedupontobecharacteristicalmarksofanyrealbeingsthathaveasteadyexistence，butscatteredandindependentideasputtogetherbythemind，aretherebydistinguishedfromthecomplexideasofsubstances。
2。Madebythemind。Thatthemind，inrespectofitssimpleideas，iswhollypassive，andreceivesthemallfromtheexistenceandoperationsofthings，suchassensationorreflectionoffersthem，withoutbeingabletomakeanyoneidea，experienceshowsus。ButifweattentivelyconsidertheseideasIcallmixedmodes，wearenowspeakingof，weshallfindtheiroriginalquitedifferent。Themindoftenexercisesanactivepowerinmakingtheseseveralcombinations。For，itbeingoncefurnishedwithsimpleideas，itcanputthemtogetherinseveralcompositions，andsomakevarietyofcomplexideas，withoutexaminingwhethertheyexistsotogetherinnature。AndhenceIthinkitisthattheseideasarecallednotions:
asiftheyhadtheiroriginal，andconstantexistence，moreinthethoughtsofmen，thanintherealityofthings；andtoformsuchideas，itsufficedthatthemindputthepartsofthemtogether，andthattheywereconsistentintheunderstanding，withoutconsideringwhethertheyhadanyrealbeing:thoughIdonotdenybutseveralofthemmightbetakenfromobservation，andtheexistenceofseveralsimpleideassocombined，astheyareputtogetherintheunderstanding。Forthemanwhofirstframedtheideaofhypocrisy，mighthaveeithertakenitatfirstfromtheobservationofonewhomadeshowofgoodqualitieswhichhehadnot；orelsehaveframedthatideainhismindwithouthavinganysuchpatterntofashionitby。Foritisevidentthat，inthebeginningoflanguagesandsocietiesofmen，severalofthosecomplexideas，whichwereconsequenttotheconstitutionsestablishedamongstthem，mustneedshavebeeninthemindsofmen，beforetheyexistedanywhereelse；andthatmanynamesthatstoodforsuchcomplexideaswereinuse，andsothoseideasframed，beforethecombinationstheystoodforeverexisted。
3。Sometimesgotbytheexplicationoftheirnames。Indeed，nowthatlanguagesaremade，andaboundwithwordsstandingforsuchcombinations，anusualwayofgettingthesecomplexideasis，bytheexplicationofthosetermsthatstandforthem。For，consistingofacompanyofsimpleideascombined，theymay，bywordsstandingforthosesimpleideas，berepresentedtothemindofonewhounderstandsthosewords，thoughthatcomplexcombinationofsimpleideaswereneverofferedtohismindbytherealexistenceofthings。Thusamanmaycometohavetheideaofsacrilegeormurder，byenumeratingtohimthesimpleideaswhichthesewordsstandfor；
withouteverseeingeitherofthemcommitted。
4。Thenametiesthepartsofmixedmodesintooneidea。Everymixedmodeconsistingofmanydistinctsimpleideas，itseemsreasonabletoinquire，Whenceithasitsunity；andhowsuchaprecisemultitudecomestomakebutoneidea；sincethatcombinationdoesnotalwaysexisttogetherinnature？TowhichIanswer，itisplainithasitsunityfromanactofthemind，combiningthoseseveralsimpleideastogether，andconsideringthemasonecomplexone，consistingofthoseparts；andthemarkofthisunion，orthatwhichislookedongenerallytocompleteit，isonenamegiventothatcombination。Foritisbytheirnamesthatmencommonlyregulatetheiraccountoftheirdistinctspeciesofmixedmodes，seldomallowingorconsideringanynumberofsimpleideastomakeonecomplexone，butsuchcollectionsastherebenamesfor。Thus，thoughthekillingofanoldmanbeasfitinnaturetobeunitedintoonecomplexidea，asthekillingaman’sfather；yet，therebeingnonamestandingpreciselyfortheone，asthereisthenameofparricidetomarktheother，itisnottakenforaparticularcomplexidea，noradistinctspeciesofactionsfromthatofkillingayoungman，oranyotherman。
5。Thecauseofmakingmixedmodes。Ifweshouldinquirealittlefurther，toseewhatitisthatoccasionsmentomakeseveralcombinationsofsimpleideasintodistinct，and，asitwere，settledmodes，andneglectothers，whichinthenatureofthingsthemselves，haveasmuchanaptnesstobecombinedandmakedistinctideas，weshallfindthereasonofittobetheendoflanguage；whichbeingtomark，orcommunicatemen’sthoughtstooneanotherwithallthedispatchthatmaybe，theyusuallymakesuchcollectionsofideasintocomplexmodes，andaffixnamestothem，astheyhavefrequentuseofintheirwayoflivingandconversation，leavingothers，whichtheyhavebutseldomanoccasiontomention，looseandwithoutnamesthattiethemtogether:theyratherchoosingtoenumerate(whentheyhaveneed)suchideasasmakethemup，bytheparticularnamesthatstandforthem，thantotroubletheirmemoriesbymultiplyingofcomplexideaswithnamestothem，whichtheyseldomorneverhaveanyoccasiontomakeuseof。
6。Whywordsinonelanguagehavenoneansweringinanother。Thisshowsushowitcomestopassthatthereareineverylanguagemanyparticularwordswhichcannotberenderedbyanyonesinglewordofanother。Fortheseveralfashions，customs，andmannersofonenation，makingseveralcombinationsofideasfamiliarandnecessaryinone，whichanotherpeoplehavehadneveranoccasiontomake，orperhapssomuchastakenoticeof，namescomeofcoursetobeannexedtothem，toavoidlongperiphrasesinthingsofdailyconversation；andsotheybecomesomanydistinctcomplexideasintheirminds。ThusostrhakismosamongsttheGreeks，andproscriptioamongsttheRomans，werewordswhichotherlanguageshadnonamesthatexactlyanswered；
becausetheystoodforcomplexideaswhichwerenotinthemindsofthemenofothernations。Wheretherewasnosuchcustom，therewasnonotionofanysuchactions；nouseofsuchcombinationsofideasaswereunited，and，asitwere，tiedtogether，bythoseterms:andthereforeinothercountriestherewerenonamesforthem。
7。Andlanguageschange。Hencealsowemayseethereason，whylanguagesconstantlychange，takeupnewandlaybyoldterms。Becausechangeofcustomsandopinionsbringingwithitnewcombinationsofideas，whichitisnecessaryfrequentlytothinkonandtalkabout，newnames，toavoidlongdescriptions，areannexedtothem；andsotheybecomenewspeciesofcomplexmodes。Whatanumberofdifferentideasarebythismeanswrappedupinoneshortsound，andhowmuchofourtimeandbreathistherebysaved，anyonewillsee，whowillbuttakethepainstoenumeratealltheideasthateitherreprieveorappealstandfor；andinsteadofeitherofthosenames，useaperiphrasis，tomakeanyoneunderstandtheirmeaning。
8。Mixedmodes，wheretheyexist。ThoughIshallhaveoccasiontoconsiderthismoreatlargewhenIcometotreatofWordsandtheiruse，yetIcouldnotavoidtotakethismuchnoticehereofthenamesofmixedmodes；whichbeingfleetingandtransientcombinationsofsimpleideas，whichhavebutashortexistenceanywherebutinthemindsofmen，andtheretoohavenolongeranyexistencethanwhilsttheyarethoughton，havenotsomuchanywheretheappearanceofaconstantandlastingexistenceasintheirnames:whicharetherefore，inthissortofideas，veryapttobetakenfortheideasthemselves。For，ifweshouldinquirewheretheideaofatriumphorapotheosisexists，itisevidenttheycouldneitherofthemexistaltogetheranywhereinthethingsthemselves，beingactionsthatrequiredtimetotheirperformance，andsocouldneverallexisttogether；andastothemindsofmen，wheretheideasoftheseactionsaresupposedtobelodged，theyhavetheretooaveryuncertainexistence:andthereforeweareapttoannexthemtothenamesthatexcitetheminus。
9。Howwegettheideasofmixedmodes。Therearethereforethreewayswherebywegetthesecomplexideasofmixedmodes:-(1)Byexperienceandobservationofthingsthemselves:thus，byseeingtwomenwrestleorfence，wegettheideaofwrestlingorfencing。(2)
Byinvention，orvoluntaryputtingtogetherofseveralsimpleideasinourownminds:sohethatfirstinventedprintingoretching，hadanideaofitinhismindbeforeiteverexisted。(3)Whichisthemostusualway，byexplainingthenamesofactionsweneversaw，ormotionswecannotsee；andbyenumerating，andthereby，asitwere，settingbeforeourimaginationsallthoseideaswhichgotothemakingthemup，andaretheconstituentpartsofthem。For，havingbysensationandreflectionstoredourmindswithsimpleideas，andbyusegotthenamesthatstandforthem，wecanbythosemeansrepresenttoanotheranycomplexideawewouldhavehimconceive；sothatithasinitnosimpleideasbutwhatheknows，andhaswithusthesamenamefor。Forallourcomplexideasareultimatelyresolvableintosimpleideas，ofwhichtheyarecompoundedandoriginallymadeup，thoughperhapstheirimmediateingredients，asImaysosay，arealsocomplexideas。Thus，themixedmodewhichthewordliestandsforismadeofthesesimpleideas:-(1)Articulatesounds。(2)Certainideasinthemindofthespeaker。(3)Thosewordsthesignsofthoseideas。(4)
Thosesignsputtogether，byaffirmationornegation，otherwisethantheideastheystandforareinthemindofthespeaker。IthinkI
neednotgoanyfurtherintheanalysisofthatcomplexideawecallalie:whatIhavesaidisenoughtoshowthatitismadeupofsimpleideas。Anditcouldnotbebutanoffensivetediousnesstomyreader，totroublehimwithamoreminuteenumerationofeveryparticularsimpleideathatgoestothiscomplexone；which，fromwhathasbeensaid，hecannotbutbeabletomakeouttohimself。Thesamemaybedoneinallourcomplexideaswhatsoever；which，howevercompoundedanddecompounded，mayatlastberesolvedintosimpleideas，whichareallthematerialsofknowledgeorthoughtwehave，orcanhave。Norshallwehavereasontofearthatthemindisherebystintedtotooscantyanumberofideas，ifweconsiderwhataninexhaustiblestockofsimplemodesnumberandfigurealoneaffordus。
Howfarthenmixedmodes，whichadmitofthevariouscombinationsofdifferentsimpleideas，andtheirinfinitemodes，arefrombeingfewandscanty，wemayeasilyimagine。Sothat，beforewehavedone，weshallseethatnobodyneedbeafraidheshallnothavescopeandcompassenoughforhisthoughtstorangein，thoughtheybe，asI
pretend，confinedonlytosimpleideas，receivedfromsensationorreflection，andtheirseveralcombinations。
10。Motion，thinking，andpowerhavebeenmostmodified。Itisworthourobserving，whichofalloursimpleideashavebeenmostmodified，andhadmostmixedideasmadeoutofthem，withnamesgiventothem。Andthosehavebeenthesethree:-thinkingandmotion(whicharethetwoideaswhichcomprehendinthemallaction，)andpower，fromwhencetheseactionsareconceivedtoflow。Thesesimpleideas，Isay，ofthinking，motion，andpower，havebeenthosewhichhavebeenmostmodified；andoutofwhosemodificationshavebeenmademostcomplexmodes，withnamestothem。Foractionbeingthegreatbusinessofmankind，andthewholematteraboutwhichalllawsareconversant，itisnowonderthattheseveralmodesofthinkingandmotionshouldbetakennoticeof，theideasofthemobserved，andlaidupinthememory，andhavenamesassignedtothem；withoutwhichlawscouldbebutillmade，orviceanddisordersrepressed。Norcouldanycommunicationbewellhadamongstmenwithoutsuchcomplexideas，withnamestothem:andthereforemenhavesettlednames，andsupposedsettledideasintheirminds，ofmodesofactions，distinguishedbytheircauses，means，objects，ends，instruments，time，place，andothercircumstances；andalsooftheirpowersfittedforthoseactions:v。g。boldnessisthepowertospeakordowhatweintend，beforeothers，withoutfearordisorder；andtheGreekscalltheconfidenceofspeakingbyapeculiarname，parrhesia:whichpowerorabilityinmanofdoinganything，whenithasbeenacquiredbyfrequentdoingthesamething，isthatideawenamehabit；whenitisforward，andreadyuponeveryoccasiontobreakintoaction，wecallitdisposition。Thus，testinessisadispositionoraptnesstobeangry。
Toconclude:Letusexamineanymodesofaction，v。g。
considerationandassent，whichareactionsofthemind；runningandspeaking，whichareactionsofthebody；revengeandmurder，whichareactionsofbothtogether，andweshallfindthembutsomanycollectionsofsimpleideas，which，together，makeupthecomplexonessignifiedbythosenames。
11。Severalwordsseemingtosignifyaction，signifybuttheeffect。
Powerbeingthesourcefromwhenceallactionproceeds，thesubstanceswhereinthesepowersare，whentheyexertthispowerintoact，arecalledcauses，andthesubstanceswhichthereuponareproduced，orthesimpleideaswhichareintroducedintoanysubjectbytheexertingofthatpower，arecalledeffects。Theefficacywherebythenewsubstanceorideaisproducediscalled，inthesubjectexertingthatpower，action；butinthesubjectwhereinanysimpleideaischangedorproduced，itiscalledpassion:whichefficacy，howevervarious，andtheeffectsalmostinfinite，yetwecan，Ithink，conceiveit，inintellectualagents，tobenothingelsebutmodesofthinkingandwilling；incorporealagents，nothingelsebutmodificationsofmotion。Isay，Ithinkwecannotconceiveittobeanyotherbutthesetwo。Forwhateversortofactionbesidestheseproduceanyeffects，Iconfessmyselftohavenonotionnorideaof；
andsoitisquiteremotefrommythoughts，apprehensions，andknowledge；andasmuchinthedarktomeasfiveothersenses，orastheideasofcolourstoablindman。Andthereforemanywordswhichseemtoexpresssomeaction，signifynothingoftheactionormodusoperandiatall，butbarelytheeffect，withsomecircumstancesofthesubjectwroughton，orcauseoperating:v。g。creation，annihilation，containinthemnoideaoftheactionormannerwherebytheyareproduced，butbarelyofthecause，andthethingdone。Andwhenacountrymansaysthecoldfreezeswater，thoughthewordfreezingseemstoimportsomeaction，yettrulyitsignifiesnothingbuttheeffect，viz。thatwaterthatwasbeforefluidisbecomehardandconsistent，withoutcontaininganyideaoftheactionwherebyitisdone。
12。Mixedmodesmadealsoofotherideasthanthoseofpowerandaction。IthinkIshallnotneedtoremarkherethat，thoughpowerandactionmakethegreatestpartofmixedmodes，markedbynames，andfamiliarinthemindsandmouthsofmen，yetothersimpleideas，andtheirseveralcombinations，arenotexcluded:muchless，Ithink，willitbenecessaryformetoenumerateallthemixedmodeswhichhavebeensettled，withnamestothem。Thatwouldbetomakeadictionaryofthegreatestpartofthewordsmadeuseofindivinity，ethics，law，andpolitics，andseveralothersciences。Allthatisrequisitetomypresentdesign，istoshowwhatsortofideasthosearewhichIcallmixedmodes；howthemindcomesbythem；andthattheyarecompositionsmadeupofsimpleideasgotfromsensationandreflection；whichIsupposeIhavedone。
ChapterXXIII
OfourComplexIdeasofSubstances1。Ideasofparticularsubstances，howmade。Themindbeing，asI
havedeclared，furnishedwithagreatnumberofthesimpleideas，conveyedinbythesensesastheyarefoundinexteriorthings，orbyreflectiononitsownoperations，takesnoticealsothatacertainnumberofthesesimpleideasgoconstantlytogether；whichbeingpresumedtobelongtoonething，andwordsbeingsuitedtocommonapprehensions，andmadeuseofforquickdispatch，arecalled，sounitedinonesubject，byonename；which，byinadvertency，weareaptafterwardtotalkofandconsiderasonesimpleidea，whichindeedisacomplicationofmanyideastogether:because，asIhavesaid，notimagininghowthesesimpleideascansubsistbythemselves，weaccustomourselvestosupposesomesubstratumwhereintheydosubsist，andfromwhichtheydoresult，whichthereforewecallsubstance。
2。Ourobscureideaofsubstanceingeneral。Sothatifanyonewillexaminehimselfconcerninghisnotionofpuresubstanceingeneral，hewillfindhehasnootherideaofitatall，butonlyasuppositionofheknowsnotwhatsupportofsuchqualitieswhicharecapableofproducingsimpleideasinus；whichqualitiesarecommonlycalledaccidents。Ifanyoneshouldbeasked，whatisthesubjectwhereincolourorweightinheres，hewouldhavenothingtosay，butthesolidextendedparts；andifheweredemanded，whatisitthatsolidityandextensionadherein，hewouldnotbeinamuchbettercasethantheIndianbeforementionedwho，sayingthattheworldwassupportedbyagreatelephant，wasaskedwhattheelephantrestedon；towhichhisanswerwas-agreattortoise:butbeingagainpressedtoknowwhatgavesupporttothebroad-backedtortoise，replied-
something，heknewnotwhat。Andthushere，asinallothercaseswhereweusewordswithouthavingclearanddistinctideas，wetalklikechildren:who，beingquestionedwhatsuchathingis，whichtheyknownot，readilygivethissatisfactoryanswer，thatitissomething:whichintruthsignifiesnomore，whensoused，eitherbychildrenormen，butthattheyknownotwhat；andthatthethingtheypretendtoknow，andtalkof，iswhattheyhavenodistinctideaofatall，andsoareperfectlyignorantofit，andinthedark。Theideathenwehave，towhichwegivethegeneralnamesubstance，beingnothingbutthesupposed，butunknown，supportofthosequalitieswefindexisting，whichweimaginecannotsubsistsineresubstante，withoutsomethingtosupportthem，wecallthatsupportsubstantia；which，accordingtothetrueimportoftheword，is，inplainEnglish，standingunderorupholding。
3。Ofthesortsofsubstances。Anobscureandrelativeideaofsubstanceingeneralbeingthusmadewecometohavetheideasofparticularsortsofsubstances，bycollectingsuchcombinationsofsimpleideasasare，byexperienceandobservationofmen’ssenses，takennoticeoftoexisttogether；andarethereforesupposedtoflowfromtheparticularinternalconstitution，orunknownessenceofthatsubstance。Thuswecometohavetheideasofaman，horse，gold，water，&c。；ofwhichsubstances，whetheranyonehasanyotherclearidea，furtherthanofcertainsimpleideasco-existenttogether，Iappealtoeveryone’sownexperience。Itistheordinaryqualitiesobservableiniron，oradiamond，puttogether，thatmakethetruecomplexideaofthosesubstances，whichasmithorajewellercommonlyknowsbetterthanaphilosopher；who，whateversubstantialformshemaytalkof，hasnootherideaofthosesubstances，thanwhatisframedbyacollectionofthosesimpleideaswhicharetobefoundinthem:onlywemusttakenotice，thatourcomplexideasofsubstances，besidesallthosesimpleideastheyaremadeupof，havealwaystheconfusedideaofsomethingtowhichtheybelong，andinwhichtheysubsist:andthereforewhenwespeakofanysortofsubstance，wesayitisathinghavingsuchorsuchqualities；asbodyisathingthatisextended，figured，andcapableofmotion；spirit，athingcapableofthinking；andsohardness，friability，andpowertodrawiron，wesay，arequalitiestobefoundinaloadstone。These，andthelikefashionsofspeaking，intimatethatthesubstanceissupposedalwayssomethingbesidestheextension，figure，solidity，motion，thinking，orotherobservableideas，thoughweknownotwhatitis。
4。Noclearordistinctideaofsubstanceingeneral。Hence，whenwetalkorthinkofanyparticularsortofcorporealsubstances，ashorse，stone，&c。，thoughtheideawehaveofeitherofthembebutthecomplicationorcollectionofthoseseveralsimpleideasofsensiblequalities，whichweusedtofindunitedinthethingcalledhorseorstone；yet，becausewecannotconceivehowtheyshouldsubsistalone，noroneinanother，wesupposethemexistinginandsupportedbysomecommonsubject；whichsupportwedenotebythenamesubstance，thoughitbecertainwehavenoclearordistinctideaofthatthingwesupposeasupport。
5。Asclearanideaofspiritualsubstanceasofcorporealsubstance。Thesamethinghappensconcerningtheoperationsofthemind，viz。thinking，reasoning，fearing，&c。，whichweconcludingnottosubsistofthemselves，norapprehendinghowtheycanbelongtobody，orbeproducedbyit，weareapttothinkthesetheactionsofsomeothersubstance，whichwecallspirit；wherebyyetitisevidentthat，havingnootherideaornotionofmatter，butsomethingwhereinthosemanysensiblequalitieswhichaffectoursensesdosubsist；bysupposingasubstancewhereinthinking，knowing，doubting，andapowerofmoving，&c。，dosubsist，wehaveasclearanotionofthesubstanceofspirit，aswehaveofbody；theonebeingsupposedtobe(withoutknowingwhatitis)thesubstratumtothosesimpleideaswehavefromwithout；andtheothersupposed(withalikeignoranceofwhatitis)tobethesubstratumtothoseoperationsweexperimentinourselveswithin。Itisplainthen，thattheideaofcorporealsubstanceinmatterisasremotefromourconceptionsandapprehensions，asthatofspiritualsubstance，orspirit:andtherefore，fromournothavinganynotionofthesubstanceofspirit，wecannomoreconcludeitsnon-existence，thanwecan，forthesamereason，denytheexistenceofbody；itbeingasrationaltoaffirmthereisnobody，becausewehavenoclearanddistinctideaofthesubstanceofmatter，astosaythereisnospirit，becausewehavenoclearanddistinctideaofthesubstanceofaspirit。
6。Ourideasofparticularsortsofsubstances。Whateverthereforebethesecretabstractnatureofsubstanceingeneral，alltheideaswehaveofparticulardistinctsortsofsubstancesarenothingbutseveralcombinationsofsimpleideas，coexistinginsuch，thoughunknown，causeoftheirunion，asmakesthewholesubsistofitselfItisbysuchcombinationsofsimpleideas，andnothingelse，thatwerepresentparticularsortsofsubstancestoourselves；sucharetheideaswehaveoftheirseveralspeciesinourminds；andsuchonlydowe，bytheirspecificnames，signifytoothers，v。g。man，horse，sun，water，iron:uponhearingwhichwords，everyonewhounderstandsthelanguage，framesinhismindacombinationofthoseseveralsimpleideaswhichhehasusuallyobserved，orfanciedtoexisttogetherunderthatdenomination；allwhichhesupposestorestinandbe，asitwere，adherenttothatunknowncommonsubject，whichinheresnotinanythingelse。Though，inthemeantime，itbemanifest，andeveryone，uponinquiryintohisownthoughts，willfind，thathehasnootherideaofanysubstance，v。g。letitbegold，horse，iron，man，vitriol，bread，butwhathehasbarelyofthosesensiblequalities，whichhesupposestoinhere；withasuppositionofsuchasubstratumasgives，asitwere，asupporttothosequalitiesorsimpleideas，whichhehasobservedtoexistunitedtogether。Thus，theideaofthesun，-whatisitbutanaggregateofthoseseveralsimpleideas，bright，hot，roundish，havingaconstantregularmotion，atacertaindistancefromus，andperhapssomeother:ashewhothinksanddiscoursesofthesunhasbeenmoreorlessaccurateinobservingthosesensiblequalities，ideas，orproperties，whichareinthatthingwhichhecallsthesun。
7。Theiractiveandpassivepowersagreatpartofourcomplexideasofsubstances。Forhehastheperfectestideaofanyoftheparticularsortsofsubstances，whohasgathered，andputtogether，mostofthosesimpleideaswhichdoexistinit；amongwhicharetobereckoneditsactivepowers，andpassivecapacities，which，thoughnotsimpleideas，yetinthisrespect，forbrevity’ssake，mayconvenientlyenoughbereckonedamongstthem。Thus，thepowerofdrawingironisoneoftheideasofthecomplexoneofthatsubstancewecallaloadstone；andapowertobesodrawnisapartofthecomplexonewecalliron:whichpowerspassforinherentqualitiesinthosesubjects。Becauseeverysubstance，beingasapt，bythepowersweobserveinit，tochangesomesensiblequalitiesinothersubjects，asitistoproduceinusthosesimpleideaswhichwereceiveimmediatelyfromit，does，bythosenewsensiblequalitiesintroducedintoothersubjects，discovertousthosepowerswhichdotherebymediatelyaffectoursenses，asregularlyasitssensiblequalitiesdoitimmediately:v。g。weimmediatelybyoursensesperceiveinfireitsheatandcolour；whichare，ifrightlyconsidered，nothingbutpowersinittoproducethoseideasinus:wealsobyoursensesperceivethecolourandbrittlenessofcharcoal，wherebywecomebytheknowledgeofanotherpowerinfire，whichithastochangethecolourandconsistencyofwood。Bytheformer，fireimmediately，bythelatter，itmediatelydiscoverstoustheseseveralpowers；whichthereforewelookupontobeapartofthequalitiesoffire，andsomakethemapartofthecomplexideaofit。Forallthosepowersthatwetakecognizanceof，terminatingonlyinthealterationofsomesensiblequalitiesinthosesubjectsonwhichtheyoperate，andsomakingthemexhibittousnewsensibleideas，thereforeitisthatI
havereckonedthesepowersamongstthesimpleideaswhichmakethecomplexonesofthesort？ofsubstances；thoughthesepowersconsideredinthemselves，aretrulycomplexideas。AndinthisloosersenseIcraveleavetobeunderstood，whenInameanyofthesepotentialitiesamongthesimpleideaswhichwerecollectinourmindswhenwethinkofparticularsubstances。Forthepowersthatareseverallyinthemarenecessarytobeconsidered，ifwewillhavetruedistinctnotionsoftheseveralsortsofsubstances。
8。Andwhy。Norarewetowonderthatpowersmakeagreatpartofourcomplexideasofsubstances；sincetheirsecondaryqualitiesarethosewhichinmostofthemserveprincipallytodistinguishsubstancesonefromanother，andcommonlymakeaconsiderablepartofthecomplexideaoftheseveralsortsofthem。For，oursensesfailingusinthediscoveryofthebulk，texture，andfigureoftheminutepartsofbodies，onwhichtheirrealconstitutionsanddifferencesdepend，wearefaintomakeuseoftheirsecondaryqualitiesasthecharacteristicalnotesandmarkswherebytoframeideasoftheminourminds，anddistinguishthemonefromanother:allwhichsecondaryqualities，ashasbeenshown，arenothingbutbarepowers。Forthecolourandtasteofopiumare，aswellasitssoporificoranodynevirtues，merepowers，dependingonitsprimaryqualities，wherebyitisfittedtoproducedifferentoperationsondifferentpartsofourbodies。
9。Threesortsofideasmakeourcomplexonesofcorporealsubstances。Theideasthatmakeourcomplexonesofcorporealsubstances，areofthesethreesorts。First，theideasoftheprimaryqualitiesofthings，whicharediscoveredbyoursenses，andareinthemevenwhenweperceivethemnot；sucharethebulk，figure，number，situation，andmotionofthepartsofbodies；whicharereallyinthem，whetherwetakenoticeofthemornot。Secondly，thesensiblesecondaryqualities，which，dependingonthese，arenothingbutthepowersthosesubstanceshavetoproduceseveralideasinusbyoursenses；whichideasarenotinthethingsthemselves，otherwisethanasanythingisinitscause。Thirdly，theaptnessweconsiderinanysubstance，togiveorreceivesuchalterationsofprimaryqualities，asthatthesubstancesoalteredshouldproduceinusdifferentideasfromwhatitdidbefore；thesearecalledactiveandpassivepowers:allwhichpowers，asfaraswehaveanynoticeornotionofthem，terminateonlyinsensiblesimpleideas。Forwhateveralterationaloadstonehasthepowertomakeintheminuteparticlesofiron，weshouldhavenonotionofanypowerithadatalltooperateoniron，didnotitssensiblemotiondiscoverit:andIdoubtnot，butthereareathousandchanges，thatbodieswedailyhandlehaveapowertouseinoneanother，whichweneversuspect，becausetheyneverappearinsensibleeffects。
10。Powersthusmakeagreatpartofourcomplexideasofparticularsubstances。Powersthereforejustlymakeagreatpartofourcomplexideasofsubstances。Hethatwillexaminehiscomplexideaofgold，willfindseveralofitsideasthatmakeituptobeonlypowers；asthepowerofbeingmelted，butofnotspendingitselfinthefire；
ofbeingdissolvedinaquaregia，areideasasnecessarytomakeupourcomplexideaofgold，asitscolourandweight:which，ifdulyconsidered，arealsonothingbutdifferentpowers。For，tospeaktruly，yellownessisnotactuallyingold，butisapoweringoldtoproducethatideainusbyoureyes，whenplacedinaduelight:andtheheat，whichwecannotleaveoutofourideasofthesun，isnomorereallyinthesun，thanthewhitecolouritintroducesintowax。Thesearebothequallypowersinthesun，operating，bythemotionandfigureofitssensibleparts，soonaman，astomakehimhavetheideaofheat；andsoonwax，astomakeitcapabletoproduceinamantheideaofwhite。
11。Thenowsecondaryqualitiesofbodieswoulddisappear，ifwecoulddiscovertheprimaryonesoftheirminuteparts。Hadwesensesacuteenoughtodiscerntheminuteparticlesofbodies，andtherealconstitutiononwhichtheirsensiblequalitiesdepend，Idoubtnotbuttheywouldproducequitedifferentideasinus:andthatwhichisnowtheyellowcolourofgold，wouldthendisappear，andinsteadofitweshouldseeanadmirabletextureofparts，ofacertainsizeandfigure。Thismicroscopesplainlydiscovertous；forwhattoournakedeyesproducesacertaincolour，is，bythusaugmentingtheacutenessofoursenses，discoveredtobequiteadifferentthing；andthethusaltering，asitwere，theproportionofthebulkoftheminutepartsofacolouredobjecttoourusualsight，producesdifferentideasfromwhatitdidbefore。Thus，sandorpoundedglass，whichisopaque，andwhitetothenakedeye，ispellucidinamicroscope；andahairseeninthisway，losesitsformercolour，andis，inagreatmeasure，pellucid，withamixtureofsomebrightsparklingcolours，suchasappearfromtherefractionofdiamonds，andotherpellucidbodies。Blood，tothenakedeye，appearsallred；butbyagoodmicroscope，whereinitslesserpartsappear，showsonlysomefewglobulesofred，swimminginapellucidliquor，andhowtheseredglobuleswouldappear，ifglassescouldbefoundthatcouldyetmagnifythemathousandortenthousandtimesmore，isuncertain。
12。Ourfacultiesfordiscoveryofthequalitiesandpowersofsubstancessuitedtoourstate。TheinfinitewiseContriverofus，andallthingsaboutus，hathfittedoursenses，faculties，andorgans，totheconveniencesoflife，andthebusinesswehavetodohere。Weareable，byoursenses，toknowanddistinguishthings:andtoexaminethemsofarastoapplythemtoouruses，andseveralwaystoaccommodatetheexigencesofthislife。Wehaveinsightenoughintotheiradmirablecontrivancesandwonderfuleffects，toadmireandmagnifythewisdom，power，andgoodnessoftheirAuthor。Suchaknowledgeasthis，whichissuitedtoourpresentcondition，wewantnotfacultiestoattain。ButitappearsnotthatGodintendedweshouldhaveaperfect，clear，andadequateknowledgeofthem:thatperhapsisnotinthecomprehensionofanyfinitebeing。Wearefurnishedwithfaculties(dullandweakastheyare)todiscoverenoughinthecreaturestoleadustotheknowledgeoftheCreator，andtheknowledgeofourduty；andwearefittedwellenoughwithabilitiestoprovidefortheconveniencesofliving:theseareourbusinessinthisworld。Butwereoursensesaltered，andmademuchquickerandacuter，theappearanceandoutwardschemeofthingswouldhavequiteanotherfacetous；and，Iamapttothink，wouldbeinconsistentwithourbeing，oratleastwell-being，inthispartoftheuniversewhichweinhabit。Hethatconsidershowlittleourconstitutionisabletobeararemoveintopartsofthisair，notmuchhigherthanthatwecommonlybreathin，willhavereasontobesatisfied，thatinthisglobeofearthallottedforourmansion，theall-wiseArchitecthassuitedourorgans，andthebodiesthataretoaffectthem，onetoanother。Ifoursenseofhearingwerebutathousandtimesquickerthanitis，howwouldaperpetualnoisedistractus。Andweshouldinthequietestretirementbelessabletosleepormeditatethaninthemiddleofasea-fight。Nay，ifthatmostinstructiveofoursenses，seeing，wereinanymanathousandorahundredthousandtimesmoreacutethanitisbythebestmicroscope，thingsseveralmillionsoftimeslessthanthesmallestobjectofhissightnowwouldthenbevisibletohisnakedeyes，andsohewouldcomenearertothediscoveryofthetextureandmotionoftheminutepartsofcorporealthings；andinmanyofthem，probablygetideasoftheirinternalconstitutions:butthenhewouldbeinaquitedifferentworldfromotherpeople:nothingwouldappearthesametohimandothers:thevisibleideasofeverythingwouldbedifferent。
SothatIdoubt，whetherheandtherestofmencoulddiscourseconcerningtheobjectsofsight，orhaveanycommunicationaboutcolours，theirappearancesbeingsowhollydifferent。Andperhapssuchaquicknessandtendernessofsightcouldnotendurebrightsunshine，orsomuchasopendaylight；nortakeinbutaverysmallpartofanyobjectatonce，andthattooonlyataveryneardistance。
Andifbythehelpofsuchmicroscopicaleyes(ifImaysocallthem)amancouldpenetratefurtherthanordinaryintothesecretcompositionandradicaltextureofbodies，hewouldnotmakeanygreatadvantagebythechange，ifsuchanacutesightwouldnotservetoconducthimtothemarketandexchange；ifhecouldnotseethingshewastoavoid，ataconvenientdistance；nordistinguishthingshehadtodowithbythosesensiblequalitiesothersdo。Hethatwassharp-sightedenoughtoseetheconfigurationoftheminuteparticlesofthespringofaclock，andobserveuponwhatpeculiarstructureandimpulseitselasticmotiondepends，wouldnodoubtdiscoversomethingveryadmirable:butifeyessoframedcouldnotviewatoncethehand，andthecharactersofthehour-plate，andtherebyatadistanceseewhato’clockitwas，theirownercouldnotbemuchbenefitedbythatacuteness；which，whilstitdiscoveredthesecretcontrivanceofthepartsofthemachine，madehimloseitsuse。
13。Conjectureaboutthecorporealorgansofsomespirits。Andheregivemeleavetoproposeanextravagantconjectureofmine，viz。Thatsincewehavesomereason(iftherebeanycredittobegiventothereportofthingsthatourphilosophycannotaccountfor)toimagine，thatSpiritscanassumetothemselvesbodiesofdifferentbulk，figure，andconformationofparts-whetheronegreatadvantagesomeofthemhaveoverusmaynotlieinthis，thattheycansoframeandshapetothemselvesorgansofsensationorperception，astosuitthemtotheirpresentdesign，andthecircumstancesoftheobjecttheywouldconsider。Forhowmuchwouldthatmanexceedallothersinknowledge，whohadbutthefacultysotoalterthestructureofhiseyes，thatonesense，astomakeitcapableofalltheseveraldegreesofvisionwhichtheassistanceofglasses(casuallyatfirstlightedon)hastaughtustoconceive？Whatwonderswouldhediscover，whocouldsofithiseyestoallsortsofobjects，astoseewhenhepleasedthefigureandmotionoftheminuteparticlesintheblood，andotherjuicesofanimals，asdistinctlyashedoes，atothertimes，theshapeandmotionoftheanimalsthemselves？Buttous，inourpresentstate，unalterableorgans，socontrivedastodiscoverthefigureandmotionoftheminutepartsofbodies，whereondependthosesensiblequalitieswenowobserveinthem，wouldperhapsbeofnoadvantage。Godhasnodoubtmadethemsoasisbestforusinourpresentcondition。Hehathfittedusfortheneighbourhoodofthebodiesthatsurroundus，andwehavetodowith；andthoughwecannot，bythefacultieswehave，attaintoaperfectknowledgeofthings，yettheywillserveuswellenoughforthoseendsabove-mentioned，whichareourgreatconcernment。Ibegmyreader’spardonforlayingbeforehimsowildafancyconcerningthewaysofperceptionofbeingsaboveus；buthowextravagantsoeveritbe，Idoubtwhetherwecanimagineanythingabouttheknowledgeofangelsbutafterthismanner，somewayorotherinproportiontowhatwefindandobserveinourselves。AndthoughwecannotbutallowthattheinfinitepowerandwisdomofGodmayframecreatureswithathousandotherfacultiesandwaysofperceivingthingswithoutthemthanwhatwehave，yetourthoughtscangonofurtherthanourown:soimpossibleitisforustoenlargeourveryguessesbeyondtheideasreceivedfromourownsensationandreflection。Thesupposition，atleast，thatangelsdosometimesassumebodies，needsnotstartleus；sincesomeofthemostancientandmostlearnedFathersofthechurchseemedtobelievethattheyhadbodies:andthisiscertain，thattheirstateandwayofexistenceisunknowntous。
14。Ourspecificideasofsubstances。Buttoreturntothematterinhand，-theideaswehaveofsubstances，andthewayswecomebythem。Isay，ourspecificideasofsubstancesarenothingelsebutacollectionofacertainnumberofsimpleideas，consideredasunitedinonething。Theseideasofsubstances，thoughtheyarecommonlysimpleapprehensions，andthenamesofthemsimpleterms，yetineffectarecomplexandcompounded。ThustheideawhichanEnglishmansignifiesbythenameswan，iswhitecolour，longneck，redbeak，blacklegs，andwholefeet，andalltheseofacertainsize，withapowerofswimminginthewater，andmakingacertainkindofnoise，andperhaps，toamanwhohaslongobservedthiskindofbirds，someotherproperties:whichallterminateinsensiblesimpleideas，allunitedinonecommonsubject。
15。Ourideasofspiritualsubstances，asclearasofbodilysubstances。Besidesthecomplexideaswehaveofmaterialsensiblesubstances，ofwhichIhavelastspoken，-bythesimpleideaswehavetakenfromthoseoperationsofourownminds，whichweexperimentdailyinourselves，asthinking，understanding，willing，knowing，andpowerofbeginningmotion，&c。，co-existinginsomesubstance，weareabletoframethecomplexideaofanimmaterialspirit。Andthus，byputtingtogethertheideasofthinking，perceiving，liberty，andpowerofmovingthemselvesandotherthings，wehaveasclearaperceptionandnotionofimmaterialsubstancesaswehaveofmaterial。Forputtingtogethertheideasofthinkingandwilling，orthepowerofmovingorquietingcorporealmotion，joinedtosubstance，ofwhichwehavenodistinctidea，wehavetheideaofanimmaterialspirit；andbyputtingtogethertheideasofcoherentsolidparts，andapowerofbeingmoved，joinedwithsubstance，ofwhichlikewisewehavenopositiveidea，wehavetheideaofmatter。Theoneisasclearanddistinctanideaastheother:theideaofthinking，andmovingabody，beingasclearanddistinctideasastheideasofextension，solidity，andbeingmoved。Forourideaofsubstanceisequallyobscure，ornoneatall，inboth；itisbutasupposedIknownotwhat，tosupportthoseideaswecallaccidents。Itisforwantreflectionthatweareapttothinkthatoursensesshowusnothingbutmaterialthings。Everyactofsensation，whendulyconsidered，givesusanequalviewofbothpartsofnature，thecorporealandspiritual。ForwhilstIknow，byseeingorhearing，&c。，thatthereissomecorporealbeingwithoutme，theobjectofthatsensation，Idomorecertainlyknow，thatthereissomespiritualbeingwithinmethatseesandhears。This，Imustbeconvinced，cannotbetheactionofbareinsensiblematter；norevercouldbe，withoutanimmaterialthinkingbeing。
16。Noideaofabstractsubstanceeitherinbodyorspirit。Bythecomplexideaofextended，figured，coloured，andallothersensiblequalities，whichisallthatweknowofit，weareasfarfromtheideaofthesubstanceofbody，asifweknewnothingatall:norafteralltheacquaintanceandfamiliaritywhichweimaginewehavewithmatter，andthemanyqualitiesmenassurethemselvestheyperceiveandknowinbodies，willitperhapsuponexaminationbefound，thattheyhaveanymoreorclearerprimaryideasbelongingtobody，thantheyhavebelongingtoimmaterialspirit。
