第1章

ThreeLecturesontheRateofWagesDeliveredbeforetheUniversityofOxfordinEasterTerm1830 WithaPrefaceontheCausesandRemediesofthePresentDisturbancesBelliquecausasetvitiaetmodosTractas，etincediaperignesSuppositoscineridoloso。 ByNassauWilliamSeniorofMagdalenCollege，A。M。; LateProfessorofPoliticalEconomyTheSecondEditionLondon; JohnMurray，AlbemarleStreetMDCCXXXI LONDON: PrintedbyWilliamClowks，StamfordStreetPREFACE。ThefollowingLecturescontainlittlethatisnotwellknowntomanyofmyreaders，andstilllessthatispeculiarlyand exclusivelyappropriatetothepresentemergency。Theywerewrittenanddeliveredinaperiodofprofoundtranquillity;but wearenowinastatewhichmayrequiretheexertionsofeveryindividualamongtheeducatedclasses，andmanymayhave toassistinexecuting，oreveninoriginatingmeasuresforthereliefofthelabouringpopulation，whoarenotyetsufficientlyfamiliarwiththeprinciplesaccordingtowhichthatreliefistobeafforded。Undersuchcircumstances，ithasappearedtomethatadvantagemightbederivedfromashortexplanationofthe ambiguitiesandfallacieswhichmostobscurethesubjectofwages——themostdifficultandthemostimportantofallthebranchesofpoliticaleconomy。Myprincipalobject，however，hasbeentodrawattentiontotheelementaryproposition，thattherateofwagesdependson theextentofthefundforthemaintenanceoflabourers，comparedwiththenumberoflabourerstobemaintained。This propositionissonearlyself—evident，thatitmayappearscarcelytodeserveaformalstatement;stilllesstobedweltonasif itwereadiscovery。Itistruethatitisobviousandtrite;but，perhaps，onthatveryaccount，itspracticalconsequenceshave beenneglected。Inthefirstplace，ifthispropositionbeadmitted，manyprevalentopinionsrespectingtheeffectsof unproductiveconsumption，ofmachinery，andoffree—trade，mustbeabandoned;andtoshowthis，istheobjectofthe secondandthirdofthefollowingLectures。Andinthesecondplace，itmustalsofollowthattherateofwagescanbe raised，or，whatisnearlythesame，theconditionofthelabouringclassesimproved，onlybyeitherincreasingthefundfortheirmaintenance，ordiminishingthenumbertobemaintained。Theprincipalmeansbywhich—thefundforthemaintenanceoflabourerscanbeincreased，isbyincreasingtheproductivenessoflabour。Andthismaybedone，——First，Byallowingeverymantoexerthimselfinthewaywhich，fromexperience，hefindsmostbeneficial;byfreeing industryfromthemassofrestrictions，prohibitions，andprotectingduties，withwhichtheLegislature，sometimesin well—meaning。ignorance，sometimesinpity，andsometimesinnationaljealousy，haslabouredtocrushormisdirecther efforts;and，Secondly，Byputtinganendtothatunhappysystemwhich，inthesoutherncounties，hasdissociatedlabourfrom subsistence——hasmaddwadesnotamatterofcontractbetweenthemasterandtheworkman，butarightintheone，anda taxontheother;and，byremovingthemotivesforexertion，hasrendered，asfarasithasbeenpossible，thelabourerunworthyofhishire。Theonlyeffectualandpermanentmeansofpreventingtheundueincreaseofthenumbertobemaintained，istoraisethe moralandintellectualcharacterofthelabouringpopulation;toimprove，or，Ifearwemustsay，tocreatehabitsof prudence，ofself—respect，andofself—restraint;toequalize，asbynaturetheyareequal，thewagesofthesingleandthe married，andnolongertomakeafamilythepassporttoallowance。Butthesearenecessarilygradualmeasures——theyare preventive，notremedial。Theonlyimmediateremedyforanactualexcessinoneclassofthepopulation，istheancientandapprovedone，coloniamdeducere。Itisofgreatimportancetokeepinmind，thatnotonlyisemigrationthesoleimmediateremedy，butthatitisaremedypreparatorytotheadoptionandnecessarytothesafetyofeveryother。Theprincipalcausethecalamitiesthatwearewitnessing，hasbeenthedisturbancewhichthepoor—laws，asatpresent administeredinthesouthofEngland，havecreatedinthemostextensiveandthemostimportantofallpoliticalrelations，therelationbetweentheemployerandthelabourer。Theslave（usingthatwordinitsstrictsense）cannotchoosehisowner，hisemployment，orhisresidence;hiswholeservices arethepropertyofanother，andtheirvalue，howeverhigh，giveshimnoadditionalclaim。Ontheotherhand，heisentitled tosubsistenceforhimselfandhisfamily:clothing，lodging，food，medicalattendance——everything，inshort，whichis necessarytokeephiminhealthandstrengthisprovidedforhim，fromthesamemotives，andwiththesameliberality，that theyareprovidedfortheotherdomesticanimalsofhismaster。Heisboundtolabour，andhasarighttobemaintained。 Extremeidlenessmaysubjecthimtothelash，butextraordinarydiligencecannotbetterhiscondition。Heisequally incapableofbeingbenefitedbyself—restraint，orinjuredbyimprovidence。Whilesingle，hereceivesabaresubsistence;ifhe haveafamily，hismaintenancerisesinpreciseproportiontohiswants:theprudentialchecktopopulationdoesnotexist—— itiskeptdown，ifatall，byoppressiononthepartofthemaster，orviceonthatoftheslave。This，notwithstandingthe variousdegreesofmitigationwhichhavebeenintroducedbycustomorbylaw，isinsubstancetheconditionofslaves，whereverslaveryexists。Insuchacountrydistressbegins，not，asinthecaseofafreecountry，withthelowerorders，butwiththehigher。Abad system，therefore，cancontinuetheremuchlonger，becausetheclassaffectedhavefarthertofall;and，forthesamereason， theruin，whenitdoescome，issuddenandirretrievable。Whilemisgovernment，byexcessiveorill—placedtaxation，by commercialrestrictions，byallowinginsecurityofpersonorproperty，byapplyinganyartificialstimulustopopulation，or underanyotherofits。numerousforms，isgraduallywastingthesurplusthatbelongstolandlordsandcapitalists，theslave populationmayscarcelyfeelitseffects。Subsistenceisalltheyareentitledto，andthattheymustreceiveaslongastheir labourproducesit。Buttheinstantthatsurplusisgone，anddistressreachesthosewhosepreviousmaintenancewasonly equaltotheirnecessities，whatistherebetweenthemandabsolutedestruction？Iftheevilswhichhavebeensolong accumulatinginsomeofourWestIndianislandshadaffectedafreecountry，thewholepopulationwould，longago，have risentoredressthem。Butasyet，theyhavereachedonlytheslave—owner。Hehasfoundhispropertygraduallywasting away;hehasfoundthathisslaveseveryyearconsumealargerandalargerproportionofwhattheyproduce;butevenstill hehassomethingtolose:andwhilethatisthecase，theirsituationisunaffected。Whenthewholeproducehasbecomeonly sufficienttofeedthenegroes，——atimewhich，underthepresentsystem，israpidlyadvancinginsomeoftheolderislands， ——thewhitesmustabandonthemasafieldforallthemoralandphysicalevilthatslaves，helplessbyeducationanddesperatefromwant，willmutuallysufferandinflict（1）Thefreeman（usingthatterminitsfullmeaning，）isthemasterofhisexertions，andofhisresidence。Hemayrefusetoquit thespot，ortochangetheemployment，inwhichhislabourhasbecomeunprofitable。Ashemayrefusetolabouratall，be mayaskforhisservicesWhateverremunerationhethinksfit;butasnooneisboundtopurchasethoseservices，andasno oneisobligedtoaffordhimfood，clothing，oranyofthenecessariesoflife，heisforced，ifhewouldsubsist，tofollowthe trade，anddwellintheplace，andexertthediligencewhichwillmakehisservicesworthpurchasing;andheisforcedto offerthemforsale，bythesamenecessitywhichforcesthecapitalisttoofferhimwagesinexchangeforthem。Andthe bargainissettled，likeallotherfreebargains，bytherespectivemarketvaluesofthethingsexchanged。Asmarriagehasno tendency。toincreasethevalueofhislabour，ithasnotendencytoincreasehisremuneration。Hedefersit，therefore，tillthe savingsmadewhilehewassingleaffordafundtomeettheexpensesofafamily;andpopulationiskeptdownbytheonlycheckthatisconsistentwithmoralorphysicalwelfare——theprudentialcheck:Tothisstateofthingsthereisanearapproachamongthelabouringclassesinthemostadvanceddistrictsofthecontinent ofEurope，inthelowlandsofScotland，andeventhroughouttheBritishempire，amongthebesteducatedofthoseclasses whoderivetheirchiefsubsistencefromtheirexertions，includingprofessionalpersons，domesticservants，skilledartisans，andthatportionoftheshopkeeperswhoseprofitsare，infact，principallythewagesoftheirlabour。Thepoor—laws，asadministeredinthesoutherndistrictsofEngland，areanattempttounitetheirreconcilableadvantagesof freedomandservitude。Thelaboureristobeafreeagent，butwithoutthehazardsoffreeagency;tobefreefromthe coercion，buttoenjoytheassuredsubsistenceoftheslave。Heisexpectedtobediligent，thoughhehasnofearofwant; provident，thoughhispayrisesashisfamilyincreases;attachedtoamasterwhoemployshiminpursuanceofavestryresolution;andgratefulfortheallowancewhichthemagistratesorderhimasaright。Inthenaturalstateoftherelationbetweenthecapitalistandthelabourer，whentheamountofwagestobepaid，andof worktobedone，arethesubjectsofafreeandopenbargain;whenthelabourerobtains，andknowsthatheistoobtainjust whathisservicesareworthtohisemployer，hemustfeelanyfallinthepriceofhislabourtobeanevil，butisnotlikelyto complainofitasaninjustice。Greaterexertionandseverereconomyarehisfirstresourcesindistress;andwhattheycannot supply，hereceiveswithgratitudefromthebenevolent。Theconnexionbetweenhimandhismasterhasthekindlinessofa voluntaryassociation，inwhicheachpartyisconsciousofbenefit，andeachfeelsthathisownwelfaredepends，toacertain extent，onthewelfareoftheother。Buttheinstantwagesceasetobeabargain——theinstantthelabourerispaid，not accordingtohisvalue，buthiswants，heceasestobeafreeman。Heacquirestheindolence，theimprovidence，therapacity， andthemalignity，butnotthesubordinationofaslave。Heistoldthathehasarighttowages，butthatheisboundto work？Whoistodecidehowhardheoughttowork，orhowhardhedoeswork？Whoistodecidewhatamountofwages hehasarightto？Asyet，thedecisionhasbeenmadebytheoverseersandthemagistrates。Buttheywereinterestedparties。 Thelabourerhasthoughtfittocorrectthatdecision。Forthepresenthethinksthathehasarightto2s。3d。adayinwinter， and2s。6d。insummer。Andouronlyhopeseemstobe，thatthepromiseofsuchwageswillbribehimintoquiet。Butwho candoubtthathewillmeasurehisrightsbyhiswishes，orthathiswisheswillextendwiththeprospectoftheir gratification？Thepresenttidemaynotcompletetheinundation，butitwillbeadreadfulerrorifwemistaketheebbfora permanentrecedingofthewaters。Abreachhasbeenmadeintheseawall，andwitheverysucceedingirruptiontheywill swellhigherandspreadmorewidely。Whatwearesufferingisnothingtowhatwehavetoexpect。Nextyear，perhaps，the labourerwillthinkitunjustthatheshouldhavelessthan4s。adayinwinter，and5s。insummer;——andwoetothetyrantswhodenyhimhisright！Itistrue，thatsucharightcouldnotbepermanentlyenforced;——itistrue，thatifthelabourerburnsthecorn—ricksinwhich hissubsistenceforthecurrentyearisstored——ifheconsumesinidlenessorinriotthetimeandtheexertionsonwhichnext year\'sharvestdepends——ifhewastesinextravagantwages，ordrivestoforeigncountries，thecapitalthatistoassistand renderproductivehislabour，hewillbethegreatestsuffererinthecommonruin。Thosewhohavepropertymayescape withaportionofittosomecountryinwhichtheirrightswillbeprotected;butthelabourermustremaintoenjoyhisownworks——tofeelthattherealrewardsforplunderanddevastationarewantanddisease。Buthavetheconsequencesofthepresent。systemeverbeenexplainedtothelabourer？Isnothisrighttogoodwages。 re—echoedfromallpartsofthecountryIshenottold——\'Dwellintheland，andverilythoushallbefed？\'Doesnotthe HonourableMemberwhohasaffixedthismottotohiswork，assume，thatthefundoutofwhichthelaboureristobefedis practicallyinexhaustible？Andcanwordsmorestronglyimplythathissufferingsarisefromtheinjusticeofhissuperiors？ Havenotevenmagistratesandlandlordsrecommendedthedestruction，or，whatisthesame，bothinprincipleaudeffect， thedisuseoftheverymachinesofwhichtheobjectistorenderlabourmoreefficientintheproductionofthearticles consumedbythelabourer——intheproductionofthatveryfundontheextentofwhich，comparedwiththenumberto。be maintained，theamountofwagesdepends？Andisthereanyrealdifferencebetweenthisconductandtheburningofa rick—yard？Threshing—machinesarethepresentobjectsofhostility，ploughswillbethenext;spadeswillthenbefoundto diminishemployment;andwhenithasbeenmadepenaltogiveadvantagetolabourbyanytoolorinstrumentWhatever，thelaststepmustbetoprohibittheuseoftheright—hand。Havesufficientpainsbeentakeneventoexposetheabsurdityofwhatappearssoobvioustothepopulace——thatthe landlordsoughttoreducetheirrentsandtheclergytheirtithe，andthenthefarmerwouldgivebetterwages？Ifthefarmer hadhislandfornothing，stillitwouldnotbehisinteresttogiveanymanmorewagesforaday\'sworkthanhisday\'swork wasworth。Hecould。betteraffordit，nodoubt，tobepaidasatax;butwhyshouldthefarmerpaythattaxmorethanthe physicianortheshopkeeper？Ifthefarmeristoemploy，atthisadvancedrateofwages，onlywhomhechooses，thedistress willbeincreased，sincehewil！employonlythatsmallernumberwhoselabourisworththeirincreasedpay。Ifheisto employacertainproportionofthelabourers，howevernumerous，inhisparish，heis，infact，topayrentandtithesas before，withthisdifferenceonly，thattheyaretobepaidtopaupers，insteadoftothelandlordandtheparson;andthatthe paymentisnotafixedbutanindefinitesum，andasumwhichmusteveryyearincrease。inanacceleratedratio，asthe increaseofpopulationrushestofillupthisnewvacuum，tillrent，tithes，profit，andcapital，arealleatenup，andpauperism produceswhatmaybecalleditsnaturaleffects——fortheyaretheeffectswhich，ifunchecked，itmustultimatelyproduce——famine，pestilence，andcivilwar。Thatthiscountrycanpreserveitsprosperity，orevenitssocialexistence，ifthestateoffeelingwhichIhavedescribed becomesuniversalamongthe。lowerclasses，。Ithinknoonewillbeboldenoughtomaintain。Thatitisextensively prevalent，andthat，underthepresentadministrationofthepoor—laws，itwill，atnoremoteperiod，becomeuniversalinthe southerndistricts，appearstometobeequallyclear。Butwho，inthepresentstateofthosedistricts，willventuretocarry intoexecutionarealandeffectualalterationofthepoor—laws？Remove，byemigration，thepauperismthatnowoppressesthosedistricts，andsuchanalteration，thoughitmayremaindifficult，willceasetobeimpracticable。Again，thecorn—laws，bytheirtendencytoraisethepriceofsubsistence，bytheruinwhichtheyhaveinflictedonthe internalcorn—trade，andthestimuluswhichtheyhavegiventotheincreaseoftheagriculturalpopulation，havewithout doubtbeenamongstthecausesofthepresentdistress;andif，whilethepopulationofEnglandandWalescontinuesto increaseattherateof500personsaday，theintroductionofforeigncornissubject，underordinaryprices，toaprohibitive duty，thoselawswillbecomeeverydaymoremischievous，andlessremediable。Buttherepealofthoselaws，however gradual（andonlyagradualrepealcanbethoughtof），would，underthepresentpressureofpauperism，tendtoaggravatetheagriculturaldistress。Lightenthatpressure，andwemaygraduallyreverttotheonlysafesystem——thesystemoffreedom。Thisobservation，indeed，isonlyoneexampleofageneralrule。Naturehasdecreedthattheroadtogoodshallbethrough evil——thatnoimprovementshalltakeplaceinwhichthegeneraladvantageshallnotbeaccompaniedbypartialsuffering。 Theobviousremedyistoremovethosewhoselabourhasceasedtobeprofitable，toacountrythatwillaffordroomfor theirexertions。Fewinventions，duringthepresentcentury，haveconferredgreaterbenefitsonthelabouringclassesthan thatofthepower—loom。Bydiminishingtheexpenseofclothing，ithasbeenasource，notmerelyofcomfort，butofhealth andlongevity。Butitsproximateeffectwastospreadruinamongthehand—weavers;toreducealmostallofthemtoamere subsistence，andmanytothemostabjectwant。Eversinceitsintroduction，thousandshavebeenpiningawayundermisery， notalleviatedevenbyhope;withnorationalexpectation，butthattheensuingyearwouldbemorecalamitousthanthe passingone:andthiswithoutfault，withoutevenimprovidence。\'Ifithadbeenthoughtthattheremovalofafellow—creaturefrommiserytohappinessisworth？2，theymightnowhaveformedaflourishingsettlementinBritishAmerica。Thehostilityofmany，coupledwiththeindifferenceofalmostallothers，toanysystematicplanofemigration，isaground forregretandalarm，considerednotonlyasacause，butasasymptom。Itisalamentableproofofignoranceastothereal stateof。thecountry，orofcarelessnessastoitswelfare，orofadeterminationtomakenosacrificeforitsrelief。 Wearetoldthatemigrationwouldbeexpensive，andagainwearetoldthatthevacuumwouldbefilledup。###第2章Itistrue，thattoremoveamillionofpersonsmight，perhaps，cost？2，000，000sterling;thatistosay，mightcostasmuch asthedirectexpenditureofthreemonthswar;andthatanexpenditureof？2，000，000sterlingisanevil。Butinthefirst place，ithasbeendemonstrated（2）thattheexpenseofkeepingpaupersathomeisfargreaterthanthatoftheirremoval。It maybenecessarytorepeat，thoughithasoftenbeenremarkedbefore，thatthereliefisaffordednotonlytothose individualswhoemigrate，buttothemuchgreaternumberwhoremain。Ifthereare450labourersinadistrictwhich requiresthefullemployment，andaffordsthefullsubsistenceofonly400，all，ornearlyall，willbeindistress，andbythe emigrationoffiftyallwillberelieved。And，inthesecondplace，evenifthebalanceofexpensewereonthesideof removingaportionofoursurpluspopulation，isnoexpensebeyondthatoftheirmerekeeptobefearedfromtheir presence？Ifthepresentinsurrectionspread（anditwillspreadifthepeasantryaretold，as。practicallytheyhavebeentold， thatforriotandrebellionthreedays\'imprisonmentisthepunishment，andariseofwagesthereward）;iftheravageofthe countryreacts，asitwillreact，onthetowns;if，whentradebeginstolanguish，themastermanufacturers，accordingtotheir latepractice，dismisstheirworkmen，andthemanufacturingworkmen，intheirturn，destroymachinery;ifthefoundations， notmerelyofourwealth，butofourexistence，arethusimpaired，willtwelvemillions，ortwentymillions，orevenahundredmillionssterlingrepresenttheloss？Itistrue，thatifweadopttopreventivemeasures，ifwepersistblindlyinourcourseoferror，thetemporaryreliefafforded byemigrationwillcometoanend，andthevacuumwill，insixteenorseventeenyears，befilledup。Butisitcertainthatwe shallnotprofitbyexperience？Havewearight，or，rather，arewecompelled，toassume，asalinkintheargument，thatwe andoursuccessorsmustbemadmen？Ifamanhasbeenoutrunninghisincome，isitquitecertainthatwecandohimno goodbypayinghisdebts，onthegroundthatifhegoesoninthesamethoughtlessexpenditure，hewillagainbeinvolvedas deeplyasever？Andevengrantingthatthevacuumwillbefilledup，willitbenothingtohaveobtainedsixteenyears\' respite？——tohaveweatheredtheexistingstorm？——tohaveadjournedthecrisistoaperiodwhichmaybemorefavourable，andcannotpossiblybelessso？Wearetoldthatthelabourersformthestrengthofthecountry，andthattodiminishtheirnumberistoincurvoluntary feebleness。Butdoesthepauper，——themanwhoselabourisnotworthhissubsistence，whoconsumesmorethanhe produces，——doesheaddtothestrengthofthecountry？WhenIhearsuchremarks，Ifancymyselfstandingbythebedsideof auapoplecticpatient，andhearingtilenurseandthefriendsprohibittilelancet。\'Theblood，\'saysone，\'isthesupportoflife: howcanyouthinkofdiminishingitinhispresentstateofweakness\'\'Ifyoudodiminishit，\'criesoutanother，\'withhis habitsoffreeliving，itwillberenewed;inayearthevacuumwillbefilledup。\'Butisitimpossiblethatthebloodcanbein excess？Isitcertainthathishabitsareunchangeable？Shallwelethimdielow，lestweshouldhavetobleedhimagainayearhence？Itwillbeobserved，thatIhaveassumedthatthepaupersarewillingtoemigrate。Thattheyhavebeensoasyet，is unquestionable:Ihope，IhadalmostsaidItrust，thattheystillcontinuetobeso。Butiftheyareallowed。tofixthelabour theyaretogive，andthewagestheyaretoreceive;iftheyaretohelpthemselves，whileitlasts，fromthewholepropertyof thecountry，itistoomuchtoexpectthattheywillnotpreferidleness，riot，andplunderathome，tosubsistence，however ample，tobeearnedbytoilandhardshipabroad。Butthisonlyshowsthedanger，themadnessofdelay。Whilewearedeliberating，orevenbeforewehavebeguntodeliberate，\'themomentforapplyingtheremedyispassingaway。Hitherto，ithasbeencommontodefendeveryexistingpracticeasagreeabletocommonsense，inoppositiontothe visionaryschemesofpoliticaltheorists;to。pleadexperienceinbehalfofeverythingthathaslongprevailed，andto deprecatenewexperiments。Itishightimethatthosewhoprofesstovenerateexperienceshouldnow，atlength，showthat theycanlearnfromit。Towhathascommonprejudice，reigningunderthetitleofcommonsense，broughtus？Havethepracticalmenwhohavehithertoadministeredoursystemofpoor—lawssavedusfrombeingbroughttotheverybrinkof ruin？Orhavetheysuggestedanyeffectualmeansforstoppingourdownwardcareer？Surelycommonsense，iftherebeany suchthinginthecountry，willnow，atlast，bearwitnesstothetruthofBacon\'smaxim，thathewhodreadsnewremedies， mustexpectnewevils！\' Lincoln\'sInn，December3，1830。 LECTUREI。DefinitionofHighandLowWagesThelabourersformthemassofeverycommunity。Theinquiryintothecausesaffectingwagesis，therefore，themost importantbranchofpoliticaleconomy。InthefollowingLecturesIpropose，first，toexplainsomeambiguitiesintheterms highandlowwages;secondly，tostatetheproximatecausewhichregulatestheamountofwages;andlastly，toexpose someprevalenterrorsrespectingthatcause;leavingtheremotercauses，thecauseoftheproximatecause，fordiscussioninasubsequentcourse。Wagesaretheremunerationreceivedbythelabourerinrecompenseforhavingexertedhisfacultiesofmindandbody;and theyaretermedhighorlow，inproportiontotheextentofthatremuneration。Thatextenthasbeenestimatedbythreedifferentmeasures;andthewordshighandlowwageshave，consequently，beenusedinthreedifferentsenses。First。Wageshavebeen。termedhighorlow，accordingtotheamountofmoneyearnedbythelabourerwithinagiven period，withoutanyreferencetothecommoditieswhichthatmoneywouldpurchase;aswhenwesaythatwageshaverisensincethereignofHenryVII，becausethelabourernowreceives1s。6d。or2。s。aday，andthenreceivedonly4絛。Secondly。Theyhavebeentermedhighorlow，accordingtothequantityandqualityofthecommoditiesobtainedbythe labourer，withoutanyreferencetohisreceiptsinmoney;aswhenwesaythatwageshavefallensincethereignofHenryVII，becausethelabourerthenearnedtwopecksofwheataday，andnowearnsonlyone。Thirdly。Theyhavebeentermedhighorlow，accordingtotheshareorproportionwhichthelabourerreceivesoftheproduceofhisownlabour，withoutanyreferencetothetotalamountofthatproduce。Thefirstnomenclature，thatwhichmeasureswagessimplybytheiramountinmoney，isthepopularone。Thesecond，that whichconsiderswagessimplywithreferencetothequantityandqualityofthecommoditiesreceivedbythelabourer，orto speakmorecorrectly，purchaseablewithhismoneywages，wasthatgenerallyadoptedbyAdamSmith。Thethird，that whichconsiderswagesashighorlow，simplywithreferencetothelabourer\'sshareorproportionofwhatheproduces，wasintroducedbyMr。Ricardo，andhasbeencontinuedbymanyofhisfollowers。ThislastuseofthewordshighandlowwageshasalwaysappearedtomeoneofthemostunfortunateofMr。Ricardo\'s manyinnovationsinthelanguageofpoliticaleconomy。Inthefirstplace，ithasatendencytowithdrawourattention，even whenwearcconsideringthesubjectofwages，fromthefactswhichmostinfluencethelabourer\'scondition。Toascertain whetherhiswagesarehighorlow，wearedesiredtoinquire，notwhetherheisillorwellpaid，——notwhetherheiswellor illfed，orclothed，orlodged，orwarmed，butsimplywhatproportionofwhatheproducescomestohisshare。Duringthe lastfourorfiveyears，manyahand—weaverhasreceivedonly8s。3d。forproducing，byafortnight\'sexertion，awebthatthe capitalisthassoldfor8s。4d。Acoal—merchantoftenpayshismentwoguineasaweek，andchargeshisemployersfortheir servicestwoguineasandahalf。But，accordingtoMr。Ricardo\'snomenclature，thewagesoftheweaver，at4s。1絛。a week，aremuchhigherthanthoseofthecoal—heaverattwoguineas，sincetheweaverreceives99percentofthevalueofhislabour，whilethecoalheaverhadonly80percent。And，evenifthenomenclatureinquestionwerefreefromthisobjection——evenifthepointonwhichitendeavourstofix theattentionwerethemostimportant，insteadofbeingtheleastimportant。incidenttowages，itstillwouldbeinconvenient fromitsobscurity。Nowritercanhopetobeconsistentintheuseoffamiliarwordsinasensealwaysdifferentfromtheir establishedmeaning，andoftendirectlyopposedtoit;stilllesscanhehopetobealwaysunderstood。EvenMr。Ricardo， thoughheprofessestomeanbyhighwagesagreatproportion，hasinseveralplacesconsideredthemasproductiveof consequenceswhichwouldfollowonlyiftheysignifiedagreatamount。Andhisfollowersandopponentshave，almost uniformly，supposedthosewordstomeanagreatamount。SincethepublicationofMr。Ricardo\'swork，ithasbeen receivedasanaxiom，amongthedabblersinpoliticaleconomy，that，accordingtotheestablisheddoctrinesofthescience， highwagesandhighprofitsareincompatible;and，therefore，thateithertheleadingdoctrinesofpoliticaleconomyarefalse， ortheinterests。ofthelabourerandthecapitalistarealwaysdirectlyopposedtooneanother。Theformeropinionhasbeen adoptedbythelargeclasswhodonotattendtowhattheyread;thelatter，bythestilllargerclasswhodonotattendtowhattheysee。Thetwoothermeaningsofthewordshighandlowwages，thatwhichreferstothemoney，andthatwhichreferstothe commodities，receivedbythelabourer，arebothequallyconvenient，ifweconsidertherateofwagesatthesametimeand place;forthentheybothmeanthesamething。Atthesametimeandplace，thelabourerwhoreceivesthehighestwages necessarilyreceivesthemostcommodities。Butwhenwerefertodifferentplaces，ordifferenttimes，thewordshighorlow wagesdirecttheattentiontoverydifferentsubjects，asweunderstandthemtomeanmoreorlessinmoney，ormoreorless incommodities。Thedifferenceswhichhavetakenplaceintheamountofmoneywagesatdifferenttimes，informusof scarcelyanythingbuttheabundanceorscarcityofthepreciousmetalsatthosetimes:factswhichareseldomofmuch importance。Thedifferencesintheamountofmoneywagesindifferentplacesatthesametime，areofmuchmore importance，sincetheyindicatethedifferentvaluesofthelabourofdifferentcountriesinthegeneralmarketoftheworld。 Buteventhesedifferencesaffordnopremises，fromwhichthepositiveconditionofthelabouringclasses，inanycountry， canbeinferred，andbutimperfectgroundsforestimatingtheirrelativecondition。Theonlydatawhichenableusto ascertainthe。actualsituationofthelabourersatanygiventimeandplace，ortheircomparativesituationofdifferenttimes andplaces，arethequantityandqualityofthecommoditieswhichformtheirwages，ifpaidinkind，orarepurchaseable withtheirwages，ifpaidinmoney。Andastheactualorcomparativesituationofthelaboureristheprincipalobjectofthe followinginquiry，Ishallusethewordwages，toexpress，notthemoney，butthecommodities，whichthelabourerreceives; andIshallconsiderwagestoriseasthequantityorqualityofthosecommoditiesisincreasedorimproved，andtofallasthatquantityorqualityisdiminishedordeteriorated。Itisobvious，too，thatthelabourer\'ssituationdoesnotdependontheamountwhichhereceivesatanyonetime，butonhis averagereceiptsduringagivenperiod——duringaweek，amonth，orayear;andthatthelongertheperiodtaken，themore accuratewillbetheestimate。Weeklywageshave，ofcourse，moretendencytoequalitythandailyones，andannualthan monthly;and，ifwecouldascertaintheamountearnedbyamanduringfive，orten，ortwentyyears，weshouldknowhis situationbetterthanifweconfinedourattentiontoasingleyear。Thereis，however，somuchdifficultyinascertainingthe amountofwagesduringverylongperiods，that，Ithink，asingleyearwillbethebestthatwecantake。Itcomprehends what，inmostclimates，areverydifferent，summerandwinterwages;itcomprehendsalsotheperiodduringwhichthemost importantvegetableproductionscometomaturityintemperateclimates，andonthataccounthasgenerallybeenadoptedbypoliticaleconomistsastheaverageperiodforwhichcapitalissupposedtobeadvanced。Ishouldobserve，thatIinclude，aspartofthewagesofthemarriedlabourer，thoseofhiswifeandunemancipatedchildren。 Toomitthemwouldleadtoinaccurateestimatesofthecomparativesituationofthelabourersindifferentcountries，orin differentoccupations。Inthoseemploymentswhicharecarriedonundershelter，andwiththeassistanceofthatmachinery whichaffordspower，andrequireshumanaidonlyforitsdirection，theindustryofawoman，orachild，approachesin efficiencytothat。ofafull—grownman。Agirloffourteencanmanageapower—loomnearlyaswellasherfather;butwhere strength，orexposuretotheseasons，arerequired，littlecanbedonebythewife，orthegirls，orevenbytheboys，untilthey approachtheageatwhichtheyusuallyquittheirfather\'shouse。Theearningsoftilewifeandchildrenofmanya Manchesterweaverorspinnerexceed，orequal，thoseofhimself。Thoseofthewifeandchildrenofanagriculturallabourer， orofacarpenter，orcoal—heaver，aregenerallyunimportant——whilethehusband，ineachcase，receive15s。，aweek;theweeklyincomeoftheonefamilymaybe30s。，andthatoftheotheronly17s。or18s。Itmustbeadmitted。however。thattheworkmandoesnotretainthewholeofthisapparentpecuniaryadvantage。Thewifeistakenfromherhouseholdlabours，andapartofincreasedwagesisemployedin purchasing，whatmightotherwise，beproducedathome。Themoralinconveniencesarestillgreater。Theinfantchildren sufferfromthewantofmaternalattention，andthosewhoareolderfromthedeficiencyofreligious，moral，andintellectual education，andchildishrelaxationandamusemcnt。TheestablishmentofinfantandSundayschools，andlawsregulatingthe numberofhoursduringwhichchildrenmaylabour，arepalliativesoftheseevils，buttheymustexist。toacertaindegree， wheneverthelabourofthewifeandchildrenisthesubjectofsale;and。thoughnot，perhaps。strictlywithintheprovinceofpoliticaleconomy。mustneverbeomittedinanyestimateoftilecausesaffectingthewelfareofthelabouringclasses。ThelastpreliminarypointtowhichIhavetocallyourattentionis，thedifferencebetweentherateofwagesandthepriceoflabour。Ifmenweretheonlylabourers，andifeverymanworkedeq，lallyhard，andforthesamenumberofhours，duringtheyear， thesetwoexpressionswouldbesynonymous。Ifeachman，forinstance，workedthreehundreddaysduringeachyear，and tenhoursduringeachday，one—three—thousandthpartofeachman\'syearlywageswouldbethepriceofanhour\'slabour。 Butneitherofthesepropositionsistrue。Theyearlywagesofafamilyofteninclude，aswehaveseen，theresultsofthe labourofthewifeandchildren。Andfewthingsarelessuniformthanthenumberofworkingdaysduringtheyear，orofworkinghoursduringtheday，orthedegreeofexertionundergoneduringthosehours。TheestablishedannualholidaysinProtestantcountries;arebetweenfiftyandsixty。InmanyCatholiccountriestheyexceed onehundred。AmongtheHindoos，theyaresaidtooccupynearlyhalftheyear。Buttheseholidaysareconfinedtoacertainportionofthepopulation;thelabourofasailor，orasoldier，oramenialservant，admitsofscarcelyanydistinctionofdays。Again，innorthernandsouthernlatitudes，thehoursofout—doorlabourarelimitedbythedurationoflight;andin\'all climatesbytheweather。WhenthelabouterWorksundershelter，thedailyhoursoflabourmaybeuniformthroughoutthe year。And，independentlyofnaturalcauses，thedailyhoursoflabourvaryindifferentcountries，andindifferent employmentsinthesamecountry。Thedailyhoursoflabourare，perhaps，longerinFrancethaninEngland，and，certainly， arelongerinEnglandthaninHindostan。InManchester，themanufacturergenerallyworkstwelvehoursaday;inBirmingham，ten:aLondonshopmanisseldomemployedmorethaneightornine。Thereisstillmorediscrepancybetweentheexertionsmadebydifferentlaboursinagivenperiod。Theyareoften，indeed，。 unsusceptibleofcomparison。Thereisnocommonmeasureofthetoilsundergonebyaminerandatailor，orofthoseofa shopmanandanironfounder。Andlabourwhichisthesameinkind，mayvaryindefinitelyinintensity。Manofthewitnesses examinedbytheCommitteeonArtisansandMachinery（Sessionof1824）wereEnglishmanufacturers，whohadworkedin France。TheyagreeastothecomparativeindolenceoftheFrenchlabourer，evenduringhishoursofemployment。Oneof thewitnesses，AdamYoung，hadbeentwoyearsinoneofthebestmanufactoriesinAlsace。Heisasked，\'Didyoufindthe spinnersthereasindustriousastilespinnersinEngland？\'andreplies，\'No;aspinnerinEnglandwilldotwiceasmuchasa Frenchman。Theygetupatfourinthemorning，andworktilltenatnight;butourspinnerswilldoasmuchinsixhoursas theywillinten。\' \'HadyouanyFrenchmenemployedunderyou？\'——\'Yes;eight，attwofrancsaday。\' \'Whathadyouaday？\'——\'Twelvefrancs。\'\'SupposingyouhadhadeightEnglishcardersunderyou，howmuchmoreworkcouldyouhavedone？\'——\'Withone Englishman，Icouldhavedonemorethan1didwiththoseeightFrenchmen。Itcannotbecalledworktheydo:itisonlylookingatit，andwishingitdone。\'\'DotheFrenchmaketheiryarnatagreaterexpense？\'——\'Yes;thoughtheyhavetheirhandsformuchlesswagesthaninEngland。\'——pp。590，582。Eveninthesamecountry，andinthesameemployments，similarinequalitiesareconstantlyobserved。Everyoneisaware thatmuchmoreexertionisundergonebythelabourerbytask—workthanbytheday—labourer;bytheindependentday—labourerthanbythepauper;andevenbythepauperthanbytheconvict。Itisobviousthattherateofwagesislesslikelytobeuniformthantheprideoflabour，astheamountofwageswillbe affected，inthefirstplace，byanyvariationsintheprice，and，inthesecondplace，byanyvariationsintheamount，ofthelabourexerted。###第3章TheaverageannualwagesoflabourinEngland，arethreetimesashighasinIreland;butasthelabourerinIrelandissaid nottodomorethanone—thirdofwhatisdonebythelabourerinEngland，thepriceoflabourmay，inbothcountries，be aboutequal。InEngland，thelabourerbytask—workearnsmuchmorethantheday—labourer;butasitiscertainlyas profitabletoemployhim，thepriceofhislabourcannotbehigher。Itmaybesupposed，indeed，thatthepriceoflabouris everywhere，andatalltimes，thesame;and，iftherewerenodisturbingcauses，——ifallpersonsknewperfectlywelltheir owninterest，andstrictlyfollowedit，andtherewerenodifficultiesinmovingcapitalandlabourfromplacetoplace，and fromemploymenttoemployment，——thepriceoflabour，atthesametime，wouldbeeverywherethesame。Butthese difficultiesoccasionthepriceoflabourtovarymaterially，evenatthesametimeandplace;andvariations，bothinthe amountofwagesandinthepriceoflabouratdifferenttimes，andindifferentplaces，areoccasioned，notonlybythesecauses，butbyotherswhichwillbeconsideredinasubsequentcourse。Thesevariationsaffectverydifferentlythelabourerandhisemployer。Theemployerisinterestedinkeepingdowntheprice oflabour;butwhilethatpriceremainsthesame，whileatagivenexpensehegetsagivenamountofworkdone，his situation\'remainsunaltered。Ifafarmercangetafieldtrenchedfor12l。itisindifferenttohimwhetherhepaysthewhole ofthatsumtothreecapitalworkmen，ortofourordinaryones。Thethreewouldreceivehigherwagesthanthefour，butas theywoulddoproportionablymorework，theirlabourwouldcomejustascheap。Ifthethreecouldbehiredatal。l0s。 a—piece，whilethefourrequired3l。a—piece，thoughthewagesofthethreewouldbehigher，thepriceoftheworkdonebythemwouldbelower。Itistruethatthecauseswhichraisetheamountofthelabourer\'swagesoftenraisetherateofthecapitalist\'sprofits。It;by increasedindustry，onemanperformstheworkoftwo，boththeamountofwagesandtherateofprofitswillgenerallybe raised。Buttherateofprofitwillberaised，notbytheriseofwages，butinconsequenceoftheadditionalsupplyoflabour havingdiminisheditsprice，orhavingdiminishedtheperiodforwhichithadpreviouslybeennecessarytoadvancethat。price。Thelabourer，ontheotherhand，isprincipallyinterestedintheamountofwages。Theamountofhiswagesbeinggiven，it is。certainlyhisinterestthatthepriceofhislabourshouldbehigh，foronthatdependsthedegreeofexertionimposedon him。Butiftheamountofhiswagesbelow，hemustbecomparativelypoor，ifthatamountbehigh，hemustbe comparativelyrich，whateverbehisremunerationforeachspecificactofexertion。Intheonecasehe。willhaveleisureand want，——intheother，toilandabundance。Iamfarfromthinkingthattheevilsofsevereandincessantlabour，orthebenefits ofacertaindegreeofleisure，oughttobeleftoutinanyestimateofhappiness。Butitisnotwithhappiness，butwith wealth，thatIamconcernedasapoliticaleconomist;andIamnotonlyjustifiedinomitting，but，perhaps，amboundto omit，allconsiderationswhichhavenoinfluenceonwealth。Infact，however，wealthandhappinessareveryseldom opposed。Nature，whensheimposedonmanthenecessityoflabour，temperedhisrepugnancetoitbymaking long—continuedinactivitypainful，andbystronglyassociatingwithexertiontheideaofitsreward。Thepoorand half—employedIrishlabourer，orthestillpoorerand，lessindustrioussavage，isasinferiorinhappinessastieisinincometo thehard—workedEnglishartisan。TheEnglishman\'sindustrymaysometimesbeexcessive，hisdesiretobetterhiscondition maysometimesdrivehimontoilsproductiveofdiseaseillrecompensedbytheincreaseofhiswages，butthatsuchisnot generallythecasemaybeprovedbycomparingthepresentdurationoflifeinEnglandwithitsformerduration，orwithits durationinothercountries。Itisgenerallyadmitted，thatduringthelastfiftyyears，amarkedincreasehastakenplaceinthe industryofourmanufacturingpopulation，andthattheyarenowthehardestworkinglabourersintheworld。Butduringthe wholeofthatperiodtheaveragedurationoftheirliveshasbeenconstantlyincreasing，andappearsstilltoincrease:and notwithstandingtheapparentunhealthinessofmanyoftheiroccupations，notwithstandingtheatmosphereofsmokeand steaminwhichtheylabourforseventy—twohoursaweek，theyenjoylongerlifethanthelightly—toiledinhabitantsofthe mostfavouredsoilsandclimates。Theaveragemortalityamongsavagenationsisthegreatestthatisknown。Inthe continentofEuropeitisaboutoneinthirty—four。InEngland，aboutacenturyago，whenmorethanhalfofourpopulation wasagricultural，itwassupposedtobeoneinthirty;fiftyyearsagoitwascalculatedatoneinforty;thirtyyearsagoatone inforty—seven;twentyyearsagoatoneinfifty—two。Now，whentwo—thirdsofourlabourersaremanufacturers，andmore thanone—thirddwellincities，itisestimatedatoneinfifty—eight。 LECTUREII。 POPULARERRORSONTHECAUSESAFFECTINGWAGES。HavinginthelastLecturemarkedthedistinctionwhichreallyexistsbetweenthepriceof\'labourandtheamountofwages， Ishallforthefutureconsidereverylabouringfamilyasconsistingofthesamenumberofpersons，andexertingthesame degreeofindustry。Onthatsupposition，thedistinctionbetweenthepriceoflabourandtheamountofwageswillbeatan end;orrather，theonlydistinctionwillbe，thattheformerexpressiondesignatestheremunerationforeachspecific exertion:thelatter，theaggregateofallthoseseparateremunerations，assummedupattheendofeachyear。Andthe questiontobeansweredwillbe，whatarethecauseswhichdecidewhatinanygivencountry，andatanygivenperiod，shall bethequantityandqualityofthecommoditiesobtainedbyalabouringfamilyduringayear？Theproximatecauseappears tometobeclear。Thequantityandqualityofthecommoditiesobtainedbyeachlabouringfamilyduringayear，must dependonthequantityandqualityofthecommoditiesdirectlyorindirectlyappropriatedduringtheyeartotheuseofthe。labouringpopulation，comparedwiththenumberoflabouringfamilies（includingunderthattermallthosewhodependon theirownlabourforsubsistence）;or，tospeakmoreconcisely，ontheextentofthefundforthemaintenanceoflabourers， comparedwiththenumberoflabourerstobemaintained。Thispropositionissonearlyself—evident，thatifpolitical economywereanewscience，Ishouldassumeitwithoutfurtherremark。ButImustwarnyou，thatthispropositionis inconsistentwithopinionswhichareentitledtoconsideration，somefromthe。numberiandothersfrom。the。authority。ofthosewhomaintainthem。First。Itisinconsistentwiththedoctrine，thattherateofwagesdependsontheproportionwhichthenumberoflabourers beamtotheamountofcapitalinacountry。Thewordcapitalhasbeenusedinsomanysenses，thatitisdifficulttostate thisdoctrineprecisely;butIknowofnodefinition。of:thattermwhichwillnotincludemanythingsthatarenotusedbythe labouringclasses;andifmypropositionbecorrect，noincreaseordiminutionofthesethingscandirectlyaffectwages。Ifa foreignmerchantweretocometosettleinthiscountry，andbringwithhimacargoofrawandmanufacturedsilk，lace，and diamonds，thatcargowouldincreasethecapitalofthecountry;silks，lace，anddiamonds，wouldbecomemoreabundant， andtheenjoymentsofthosewhousethemwouldbeincreased;buttheenjoymentsofthelabourers—wouldnotbedirectly increased:indirectly，andconsequentially，theymightbeincreased。Thesilkmightbere—exportedinamanufacturedstate， andcommoditiesfortheuseoflabourersimportedinreturn;andthen，andnottillthen，wageswouldrise;butthatrise wouldbeoccasioned，notbythefirstadditiontothecapitalofthecountry，whichwasmadeintheformofsilk，butbythesubstitutedadditionmadeintheformofcommoditiesusedbythelabourer。Secondly。Itisinconsistentwiththedoctrine，thatwagesdependontheproportionbornebythenumberoflabourerstothe revenueofthesocietyofwhichtheyaremembers。Intheexamplelastsuggested，oftheintroductionofanewsupplyof laceordiamonds，therevenuesofthosewhouselaceordiamondswouldbein，creased;butaswagesarenotspenton thosearticles，theywouldremainunaltered。Itispossible，indeed，tostatecasesinwhichtherevenueofalargeportionofa communitymightbeincreased，andyetthewagesofthelabourersmightfallwithoutanincreaseoftheirnumbers。Iwill supposetheprincipaltradeofIrelandtobetheraisingproducefortileEnglishmarket;andthatforeverytwohundred acrestenfamilieswereemployedinraising，onhalftheland，theirownsubsistence，andontheremaindercornandother exportablecropsrequiringequallabour。Undersuchcircumstances，ifademandshouldariseintheEnglishmarketfor cattle，butchers\'—meat，andwool，insteadofcorn，itwouldbetheinterestoftheIrishlandlordsandfarmerstoconverttheir estatesfromarableintopasture。Insteadoftenfamiliesforeverytwohundredacres，twomightbesufficient:onetoraise thesubsistenceofthetwo，andtheothertotendthecattleandsheep。Therevenueofthelandlordsandthefarmerswould beincreased，butalargeportionofthelabourerswouldbethrownoutofemployment;alargeportionofthelandformerly employedinproducingcommoditiesfortheirusewouldbede。votedtotheproductionofcommoditiesfortheuseof England;andthefundforthemaintenanceofIrishlabourwouldfall，notwithstandingtheincreaseoftherevenueofthelandlordsandfarmers。Thirdly。Itisinconsistentwiththeprevalentopinion，thatthenon—residence\'oflandlords，fundedproprietors，mortgagees， andotherunproductiveconsumers，canbedetrimentaltothelabouringinhabitantsofacountrythatdoesnotexportrawproduce。Inacountrywhichexportsrawproduce，wagesmaybeloweredbysuchnon—residence。IfanIrishlandlordresidesonhis estate，herequirestheservicesofcertainpersons，whomustalsoberesidentthere，toministertohisdailywants。Hemust haveservants，gardeners，andperhapsgamekeepers。Ifhebuildahouse，hemustemployresidentmasonsandcarpenters; partofhisfurniturehemayimport，butthegreaterpartofitmustbemadeinhis。neighbourhood;aportionofhisland，or， whatcomestothesamething，aportionofhisrent，mustbeemployedinproducingfood，clothing，andshelterforallthese persons，andforthosewhoproducethatfood，clothingandshelter。IfheweretoremovetoEngland，allthesewantswould besuppliedbyEnglishmen。ThelandandcapitalwhichwasformerlyemployedinprovidingthemaintenanceofIrish labourers，wouldbeemployedinproducingcornandcattletobeexportedtoEnglandtoprovidethesubsistenceofEnglish labourers。ThewholequantityofcommoditiesappropriatedtotheuseofIrishlabourerswouldbediminished，andthatappropriatedtotheuseofEnglishlabourersincreased，andwageswould，consequently，riseinEngland，andfallinIreland。Itistruethattheseeffectswouldnotbecoextensivewiththelandlord\'sincome。While，inIreland，hemusthaveconsumed manyforeigncommodities。Hemusthavepurchasedtea，wine，andsugar，andotherthingswhichtheclimateandthe manufactures\'ofIrelanddonotafford，andhemusthavepaidforthembysendingcornandcattletoEngland。Itistrue， also，thatwhileinIrelandheprobablyemployedaportionofhislandandofhisrentsforotherpurposes，fromwhichthe labouringpopulationreceivednobenefit，asadeerpark，orapleasuregarden，orinthemaintenanceofhorsesorhounds。 Onhisremoval，thatportionofhislandwhichwasa。parkwouldbeemployed，partlyinproducingexportable commodities，andpartlyinproducingsubsistenceforitscultivators;andthatportionwhichfedhorsesforhisusemightbe employedinfeedinghorsesforexportation。Thefirstofthesealterationswoulddogood;thesecondcoulddonoharm。 Normustweforgetthat，throughthecheapnessofconveyancebetweenEnglandandIreland，aportion，orperhapsall，of thosewhomheemployedinIrelandmightfollowhimtoEnglandand，inthatcase，wagesinneithercountrywouldbe affected。ThefundforthemaintenanceoflabourersinIreland，andthenumberoflabourerstobemaintained，wouldboth beequallydiminished，andthefundforthemaintenanceoflabourersinEngland，andthenumberoflabourerstobemaintained，wouldbothbeequallyincreased。Butaftermakingallthesedeductions，andtheyareverygreat，fromthesupposedeffectoftheabsenteeismoftheIrish proprietorsonthelabouringclassesinIreland，IcannotagreewithMr。M\'Cullochthatitisimmaterial。Icannotbutjoinin thegeneralopinionthattheirreturn，thoughitwouldnotaffecttheprosperityoftheBritishempire，consideredasawhole，wouldbeimmediatelybeneficialtoIreland，thoughperhapstoomuchimportanceisattachedtoit。InMr。M\'Culloch\'scelebratedexaminationbeforethecommitteeonthestateofIreland，（4thReport，814，Sess。1825，）he wasasked，\'SupposingthelargestexportofIrelandwereinlivecattle，andthataconsiderableportionofrenthadbeen remittedinthatmanner，doesnotsuchamodeofproducingthemeansofpayingrentcontributelesstotheimprovementof thepoorthananyextensiveemploymentOftheminlabourwouldproduce？\'——Hereplies，\'Unlessthemeansofpayingrentarechangedwhenthelandlordgoeshome，his。residencecanhavenoeffectwhatever。\'Wouldnot，\'heisasked，\'thepopulationofthecountrybebenefitedbytheexpenditureamongthemofacertainportionof therentwhich（ifhehadbeenabsent）has（wouldhave）beenremitted（toEngland）？\'\'No，\'hereplies，\'Idonotseehowit couldbebenefitedintheleast。IfyouhaveacertainvaluelaidoutagainstIrishcommoditiesintheonecase，youwillhave acertainvaluelaidoutagainstthemintheother。ThecattleareeitherexportedtoEngland，ortheystayathome。Ifthey areexported，thelandlordwillobtainanequivalentfortheminEnglishcommodities;iftheyarenot，hewillobtainan equivalentfortheminIrishcommodities;sothatinbothcasesthelandlordlivesonthecattle，oronthevalueofthecattle: andwhetherhelivesinIrelandorinEngland，thereisobviouslyjusttheverysameamountofcommoditiesforthepeopleofIrelandtosubsistupon。\'Thisreasoningassumesthatthelandlord，whileresidentinIreland，himselfpersonallydevoursallthecattleproducedonhis estates;foronnoothersuppositioncantherebetheverysameamountofcommoditiesforthepeopleofIrelandtosubsistupon，whethertheircattleareretainedinIrelandorexported。Butwhenacountrydoesnotexportrawproduce，theconsequencesofabsenteeismareverydifferent。Thosewhoderivetheirincomesfromsuchacountrycannotpossiblyspendthemabroaduntiltheyhavepreviouslyspentthemathome。WhenaLeicestershirelandlordisresidentonhisestate，heemploysacertainportionofhisland，or，whatisthesame，of hisrent，inmaintainingthepersonswhoprovideforhimthosecommoditiesandservices，whichmustbeproducedonthe spotwheretheyareconsumed。IfheshouldremovetoLondon，hewouldwanttheservicesofLondoners，andtheproduce oflandandcapitalwhichpreviouslymaintainedlabourersresidentinLeicester，wouldbesentawaytomaintainlabourers residentinLondon。Thelabourerswouldprobablyfollow，andwagesinLeicestershireandLondonwouldthenbe unaltered;butuntiltheydidso，wageswouldriseintheonedistrictandfallintheother。Atthesametime，astheriseand fallwouldcompensateoneanother，asthefundforthemaintenanceoflabour，andthenumberoflabourerstobe maintained，wouldeachremainthesame，thesameamountofwageswouldbedistributedamongthesamenumberofpersons，thoughnotpreciselyinthesameproportionasbefore。IfhewerenowtoremovetoParis，anewdistributionmusttakeplace。AsthepriceofrawproduceislowerinFrancethan inEngland，andthedifferenceinhabitsandlanguagebetweenthetwocountriespreventsthetransferoflabourersfromthe onetotheother，neitherthelabourersnortheproduceofhisestatescouldfollowhim。HemustemployFrenchlabourers， andhemustconverthisshareoftheproduceofhisestates，or，whatisthesamething，hisrentintosomeexportableform inordertoreceiveitabroad。Itmaybesupposedthathewouldreceivehisrentinmoney。Evenifheweretodoso，the Englishlabourerswouldnotbeinjured，forastheydonoteatordrinkmoney，providedthesameamountofcommodities remainedfortheiruse，theywouldbeunaffectedbytheexportofmoney。Butitisimpossiblethathecouldreceivehisrent in。moneyunlesstiechosetosufferagratuitousloss。TherateofexchangebetweenLondonandParisisgenerallyratherin favourofLondon，andscarcelyeversodeviatesfromparbetweenanytwocountries，astocovertheexpenseof transferringthepreciousmetalsfromtheonetotheother，exceptingbetweenthecountrieswhichdo，andthosewhichdo notpossessmines。TheremittancesfromEnglandtoFrancemustbesent，therefore，intheformofmanufactures，either directlytoFrance，ortosomecountrywithwhichFrance。hascommercialrelations。Andhowwould\'thesemanufactures beobtained？Ofcourseinexchangeforthelandlord\'srent。Hisshareoftheproduceofhisestateswouldnowgoto BirminghamorSheffield，orManchesterorLondon，tomaintainthelabourersemployedinproducingmanufactures，tobe sentandsoldabroadforhisprofit。AnEnglishabsenteeemployshisincomepreciselyasifheweretoremainathomeand consumenothingbuthardwareandcottons。Insteadoftheservicesofgardenersandservants，upholsterersandtailors，he purchasesthoseofspinners，andweavers，andcutlers。Ineithercasehisincomeisemployedinmaintaininglabourers， thoughtheclassoflabourersisdifferent;andineithercase，thewholefundforthemaintenanceoflabourers，andthenumberoflabourerstobemaintained，remainingunaltered，thewagesoflabourwouldnotbeaffected。###第4章But，infact，thatfundwouldberatherincreasedinquantityandratherimprovedinquality。Itwouldbeincreased，because landpreviouslyemployedasapark，orinfeedingdog\'sandhorses，brharesandpheasants，wouldnowbeemployedin producingfoodorclothingformen。Itwouldbeimproved，becausetheincreasedproductionofmanufacturedcommodities wouldoccasionanincreaseddivisionoflabour，theuseofmoreandbettermachinery，andtheotherimprovementswhichwelongagoascertainedtobeitsnecessaryaccompaniments。Onedisadvantage，andoneonly，itappearstomewouldbetheresult。Theabsenteeinagreatmeasureescapesdomestic taxation。Isayinagreatmeasure，becausehestillremainsliable，ifaproprietorofhousesorofland，tothosetaxeswhich falluponrent:hepays，too，apartofthetaxesonthematerialsofmanufactures;andifitwereourpolicytotaxincomeor exportedcommodities，hemightbeforcedtopaytothepublicrevenueevenmorethanhisformerproportion。But，under ourpresentsystem，whichthrowsthebulkoftaxationoncommoditiesproducedforinternalconsumption，hereceivesthe greaterpartofhisrevenuewithoutdeduction，and。insteadofcontributingtothesupportoftheBritishGovernment， contributestosupportthat。ofFranceorItaly。Thisinconvenience，perhaps，aboutbalancestheadvantageswhichIhave justmentioned，andleavesacommunitywhichexportsonlymanufactures，neitherimpoverishednorenrichedbytheresidenceabroadofitsunproductivemembers。Iought，perhaps，onthisoccasionagaintoremindyou，thatitistowealthandpovertythatmyattentionisconfined。Themoraleffectsofabsenteeismmustneverbeneglectedbyawriterwhoinquiresintothecauseswhichpromotethehappinessofnations，butarewithouttheprovinceofapoliticaleconomist。NordoIregretthat，theyareso，fortheyform asubjectonwhichitisfarmoredifficulttoobtainsatisfactoryresults。Inonerespect，indeed，themoralquestionisthe moresimple，asitisnotcomplicatedbytheconsiderationwhetherrawproduceormanufacturesareexported，orwhether thenon—residentlandlordisabroad，orinsometownwithinhisowncountry。Ifhispresenceistobemorallybeneficialit mustbehispresenceonhisownestate。Totheinhabitantsofthatestate，theplacetowhichheabsentshimselfis indifferent。AdamSmithbelievedhisresidencetobemorallyinjurious。Theresidenceofacourt，heobserves（bookii。chap。 3），\'ingeneralmakestheinferiorsortofpeopledissoluteandpoor。Theinhabitantsofalargevillage，afterhavingmade considerableprogressinmanufactures，havebecomeidleinconsequenceofagreatlordhavingtakenuphisresidencein theirneighbourhood。\'AndMr。M\'Culloch，whosefidelityandintelligenceasanobservermaybereliedon，states，asthe resultofhisownexperience，thatinScotlandtheestatesofabsenteesarealmostalwaysthebestmanaged……Much，of coarse，dependsonindividualcharacter;butIaminclinedtobelievethatingeneralthepresenceofmenoflargefortune。is morallydetrimental，andthatofmenofmoderatefortunemorallybeneficial，totheirimmediateneighbourhood。Thehabits ofexpenseandindulgencewhich，indifferentgradations，prevailamongallthe。membersofagreatestablishment，are mischievousas。examples，andperhapsstillmoresoassourcesofrepininganddiscontent……Thedrawingroomandstable doharmtotheneighbouringgentry，andthehousekeeper\'sroomandservants\'halltotheir。inferiors。Butfamiliesof。moderateincome，includingunderthattermincomesbetween500l，and2000l，ayear，appeartobeplacedinthestation mostfavourabletotheacquisitionofmoralanalintellectualexcellence，andtoitsdiffusion。amongtheirassociatesand dependents。Ihavenodoubtthatawell—regulatedgentleman\'sfamily，removing。theprejudices，soothingthequarrels， directingandstimulatingtheexertions，andawardingpraiseorblametotheconductofthevillagersroundthem，isamong themostefficientmeansbywhichthecharacterofaneighbourhoodcanbeimproved……Itisthehappinessofthiscountry， that。almosteveryparishhasaresidentfittedbyfortuneand，educationfortheseservices;andbound，notmerelyby feelingsofpropriety，butasamatterofexpressandprofessionalduty，totheirperformance。Thedispersionthroughoutthe countryofsomanythousandclericalfamilies，eachactinginitsowndistrictasasmallcentreofcivilization，isanadvantagetowhich，perhaps，wehavebeentoolongaccustomedtobeabletoappreciateitsextent。Still，however，Ithinkthateventhemoraleffectsofabsenteeismhavebeenexaggerated。Thosewhodeclaimagainstthe 12，000Englishfamiliessupposedtoberesidentabroad，seemtoforgetthatnotone—half，probablynotonequarter，ofthem， iftheyweretoreturn，woulddwellanywherebutintowns，wheretheirinfluencewouldbewasted，orprobablynoteven exerted。WhatdoesitsignifytotheConnaught，orNorthumbrian，orDevonshirepeasant，whetherhislandlordlivesin Dublin，orLondon，orCheltenham，orRome？Andevenofthosewhowouldresideinthecountry，howmanywould exercisethatinfluencebeneficially？Howmanywouldbefox—huntersorgame—preservers，orsurroundthemselveswith dependentswhoseexamplewouldmorethancompensateforthevirtuesoftheirmasters？Nothingcanbemorerashthantopredictthatgoodwouldbetheresultofcauseswhicharequiteascapableofproducingevil。Theeconomicaleffectshavebeenstillmoregenerallymisunderstood;andIhaveoftenbeentemptedtowonderthat doctrinessoclearasthosewhichIhavebeensubmittingtoyou，shouldbeadmittedwithreluctanceevenbythosewhofeel theproofstobeunanswerable，andshouldberejectedatoncebyothers，asinvolvingaparadoxtoomonstroustobeworthexamination。Muchofthis，probably，arisesfromaconfusionoftheeconomicalwiththemoralpartofthequestion。Manywritersand readersofpoliticaleconomyforgetthatwealthonlyiswithintheprovinceofthatscience;andthattheclearestproofthatabsenteeismdiminishesthevirtueorthehappinessof theremainingmembersofacommunityisnoanswertoargumentswhichaimonlyatprovingthatitdoesnotdiminishtheirwealth。Anothersourceoferrorarisesfromthecircumstance，thatwhenthelandlordispresent，thegainisconcentrated，andthe lossdiffused;whenheisabsent，thegainisdiffused，andthelossconcentrated。Whenhequitshisestate，wecanputour fingeronthevillagetradesmanandlabourerwholosehiscustomandemployment。Wecannottracetheincreaseofcustom andemploymentthatisconsequentlyscatteredamongmillionsofmanufacturers。Whenhereturns，weseethatthe expenditureof2000l。or3000l。ayearinasmallcirclegiveswealthandspirittoitsinhabitants。Wedonotsee，however clearlywemayinferit，thatsomuchthelessisexpendedinManchester，Birmingham，orLeeds。Theinhabitantsofhis villageattributetheirgainandtheirlosstoitscauses;andtheircomplaintsandacknowledgmentsareloudinproportionto thedegreeinwhichtheyfeeltheirintereststobeaffected。Nosinglemanufacturerisconsciousthattheaverageannual exportofmorethanfortymillionssterlinghasbeenincreasedordiminishedtotheamountoftwoorthreethousand pounds。Andevenifawareofthatincreaseordiminution，hewouldnotattributeittotheresidenceinYorkshireorParisof agivenindividual，ofwhoseexistenceheprobablyisnotaware。Whentoobviousand\'palpableeffectsnothingistobe opposedbutinferencesdeducedbyalong，thoughperfectlydemonstrativereasoningprocess，noonecandoubtwhichwillprevail，bothwiththeuneducatedandtheeducatedvulgar。Manypersons，also，areperplexedbytheconsideration，thatallthecommoditieswhichareexportedasremittancesofthe absentee\'sincomeareexportsforwhichnoreturnisobtained;thattheyareasmuchlosttothiscountryasiftheywerea tributepaidtoa:foreignstate，orevenasiftheywerethrownperiodicallyintothesea。Thisisunquestionablytrue;butit mustberecollected，thatwhateverisunproductivelyconsumed，is，bytheverytermsoftheproposition，destroyed，without producinganyreturn。Theonlydifferencebetweenthetwocasesis，thattheresidentlandlordperformsthatdestruction here;theabsenteeperformsitabroad。Ineithercase，hefirstpurchasestheservicesofthoseWhoproducethethingswhich heforhisbenefit，notfortheirs，istoconsume。Ifhestayshere，liepaysamantobrushacoat，orcleanapairofboots，or arrangeatable——allwhichinanhourafterareintheirformercondition。Whenabroad，hepaysanequalsumforthe productionofneedles，orcalicoes，whicharesentabroad，andequallyconsumedwithoutfurtherbenefittothosewho producedthem。Theincomeofunproductiveconsumers，howeverpaid。isatribute;andwhethertheyenjoyithereor elsewhere，istheirownconcern。Weknowthatamancannoteathiscakeandhaveit;anditisequallytruethathecannotsella—cake:toanotherandkeepitforhimself。ThelastcausetowhichIattributetheslowprogressofcorrectopinionsonthissubject，istheirdistastefulnesstothemost influentialmembersofthecommunity。Nothingcanbemoreflatteringtolandlords，annuitants，mortgagees，and fundholders，thantobetoldthattheirresidenceisofvitalimportancetothecountry。Nothingcanbemorehumiliatingthan tobeassuredthatitisutterlyimmaterialtotherestofthecommunitywhethertheyliveinBrighton，orLondon，orParis。 Thosewhoareawarehowmuchourjudgment，eveninmattersofscience，isinfluencedbyourwishes，willnotbe surprisedatthe。prejudicesagainstadoctrinewhichforbidsthebulkoftheeducatedclasstobelievethatthey\'arebenefactorstotheircountry。bythemereactofresidingwithinitsshores。Imayappear，perhaps，tohavedwelttoomuchonasinglesubject;butnoprevalenterrorcanbeeffectuallyexposeduntil itsprevalencehasbeenaccountedfor。Andthesearcerrorswhicharetobeheardineverysociety，andoftenfromthose whosegeneralviewsinpollticaleconomyarecorrect。Theymaybecalledharmlesserrors，butnoerroris，infact，harmless; andwhenthereissomuchinourhabitsthatreallyrequiresalteration，wemaylosesightoftherealandtheremediable causesofevil，whileourattentionismisdirectedtoabsenteeism。 LECTUREIII。 POPULARERRORSONTHECAUSESAFFECTINGWAGES，（concluded。）IstatedinthelastLecture，thatthequantityandqualityofthecommoditiesobtainedbyeachlabouringfamilyduringthe year，mustdependonthequantityandqualityofthecommoditiesdirectlyorindirectlyappropriatedduringtheyeartothe useofthelabouringpopulation，comparedwiththenumberoflabouringfamilies;or，tospeakmoreconcisely，onthe extentofthefundforthemaintenanceoflabourers，comparedwiththenumberoflabourerstobemaintained;andI observed，thatthispropositionisinconsistentwithmanyopinionsentitledtoconsideration。ThreeofthoseopinionsIthenexamined;inthepresentLectureIshallconsidertheremainder。Fourthly。Itisinconsistentwiththedoctrinethatthegeneralrateofwagescan，exceptintwocases，bediminishedbytheintroductionofmachinery。Thetwocasesinwhichtheintroductionofmachinerycanproducesuchaneffect，arefirst，whenlabourisemployedinthe constructionofmachinery，whichlabourwouldotherwisehavebeenemployedintheproductionofcommoditiesforthe useoflabourers;and，secondly，whenthemachineitselfconsumescommoditieswhichwouldotherwisehavebeenconsumedbylabourers，andthattoagreaterextentthanitproducesthem。ThefirstcaseisputbyMr。Ricardo，inhischapteronMachinery;butinsodetailedaform，that，insteadofreadingit，Iwill extractitssubstance，withaslightvariationoftheterms。Hesupposesacapitalisttocarryonthebusinessofa manufacturerofcommoditiesfortheuseoflabourers;or，touseamoreconciseexpression，thebusinessofamanufacturer ofwages。Hesupposeshimtohavebeeninthehabitofcommencingeveryyearwithacapitalconsistingofwagesfora certainnumberoflabourers，whichwecalltwenty—six，andofemployingthatcapitalinhiringtwentymen，toreproduce， duringtheyear，wagesforthewholetwenty—six，andsixtoproducecommoditiesforhimself。Henowsupposeshimto employtenofhismenduringayearinproducing，notwages，butamachine，which，withtheaidofsevenmentokeepitin repairandworkit，willproduceeveryyearwagesforthirteenmen。Attheendoftheyearthecapitalist\'ssituationwouldbe unaltered:hewouldhavewagesforthirteenmen，theproduceofthelabourofhisothertenmenduringtheyear——andhis machine，alsotileproduceofthelabouroftenmenduringtheyear，andthereforeofequalvalue。Andhissituationwouldcontinueunaltered。Everyyearhismachinewouldproducewagesforthirteenmen，ofwhomsevenmustbeemployedin repairingandworkingit，andsixmight，asbefore，beemployedforthebenefitofthecapitalist。Butwehaveseenthat， duringtheyearinwhichthemachinewasconstructed，onlytenmenwereemployedinproducingwagesinsteadoftwenty， and，consequently，thatwageswereproducedforonlythirteenmeninsteadoffortwenty—six。Attheendofthatyear， therefore，thefundforthemaintenanceoflabourwasdiminished，andwagesmustconsequently，havefallen。Itisofgreat importancetorecollect，thattheonlyreasonforthisfallwasthediminutionoftheannualproduction。Thetwentymen producedwages。fortwenty—sixmen:themachineproduceswagesforonlythirteen。Thevulgarerroronthissubject supposestheeviltoarise，notfrom。itstrue—cause，theexpenseofconstructingthemachine，butfromtheproductive powersofthatmachine。Sofaristhisfrombeingtrue，thatthoseproductivepowersarethespecificbenefitwhichistobe setagainsttheevilofitsexpensiveness。If，insteadofwagesforthirteenmen，themachinecouldproducewagesforthirty， itsuse，assoonasitcameintooperation，wouldhaveincreasedinsteadofdiminishingthefundforthemaintenanceof labour。Thesameeffectwouldhavebeenproduced，ifthemachinecouldhavebeenobtainedwithoutexpense;or，ifthe capitalist，insteadofbuildingitoutofhiscapital，hadbuiltitoutofhisprofits——if，insteadofwithdrawingtenmenfora yearfromtheproductionofwages，hehademployedinitsconstruction，duringtwoyears，fiveofthemenwhomheis supposedtohaveemployedinproducingcommoditiesforhisownuse。Ineithercase，theadditionalproduceobtainedfrom themachinewouldhavebeenanadditionalfundforthemaintenanceoflabour;andwagesmust，accordingtomyelementaryproposition，haverisen。（3）Ihavethoughtitnecessarytostatethispossibleevilasapartofthetheoryofmachinery，butIamfarfromattachingany practicalimportancetoit。Idonotbelievethatthereexistsuponrecordasingleinstanceinwhichthewholeannual producehasbeendiminishedbytheuseofinanimatemachinery。Partlyinconsequenceoftheexpenseofconstructingthe greaterpartofmachinerybeingdefrayedoutofprofitsorrent，andpartlyinconsequenceofthegreatproportionwhichthe productivepowersofmachinerybeartotheexpenseofitsconstruction，itsuseisuniformlyaccompaniedbyanenormous increaseofproduction。Theannualconsumptionofcottonwoolinthiscountry，beforetheintroductionofthespinning jenny，didnotamountto100，000lbs。;itnowamountsto190，000，000。Sincethepower—loomcameintouse，thequantity ofcottonclothmanufacturedforhomeconsumptionhasincreasedfrom227，000，000ofyards（theaverageannualamount betweentheyears1816and1820），to400，000，000ofyards（theannualaveragefrom1824to1828（Huskisson\'sSpeech， 1830）。Thenumberofcopiesofbooksextantatanyoneperiodbeforetheinvention。oftheprinting—press，wasprobably smallerthanthatwhichisnowproducedinasingleday。Mr。Ricardo\'sproposition，therefore（Princ。474），thattheuseof machineryfrequentlydiminishesthequantityofthegrossproduceofacountry，is。erroneous，sofarasitdependsonthecasewhichhehassupposed，andofwhichIhavestatedthesubstance。Theotherexception，thatwherethemachineitselfconsumescommoditieswhichwouldotherwisehavebeenconsumedby labourers，andthattoagreaterextentthanitproducesthem，appliesonlytothecaseofhorsesandworkingcattle，which maybetermedanimatedmachines。Wewillsupposeafarmertoemployonhisfarmtwentymen，whoproduceannually theirownsubsistence，andthatofsixothermenproducingcommoditiesfortheuseoftheirmaster。iffivehorses， consuming，wewillsay，asmuchaseightmen，coulddotheworkoften，itwouldbeworththefarmer\'swhiletosubstitute themforeightofhismen，ashewouldbeabletoincreasethenumberofpersonswhoworkforhisownbenefitfromsixto eight。Butafterdeductingthesubsistenceofthehorses，thefundforthemaintenanceoflabourerswouldbereducedfrom wagesfortwenty—sixmentowagesforeighteen。Icannotrefusetoadmitthatsuchcasesmayexist，ortodeplorethe miserythatmustaccompanythem。Theyare，infact，nowoccurringinIreland，andareoccasioningmuchofthedistressof thatcountry。Theyseem，indeed，tobethenaturalaccompanimentsofacertainperiodintheprogressofnational improvement。Intheearlystagesofsociety，therankandeventhesafetyofthelandedproprietorisprincipallydetermined bythenumberofhisdependents。Thebestmodeofincreasingthatnumberistoallowtheland，whichhedoesnotoccupy ashisowndemesne，tobesubdividedintosmalltenements，eachcultivatedbyonefamily，andjustsufficientfortheir support。Suchtenantscanofcoursepaylittlerent，buttheyarcenabledbytheirabundantleisure，andforcedbytheir absolutedependence，toswelltheretinue，andaidthepoliticalinfluence，oftheirlandlordinpeace，andtofollowhisbanner inpublicandprivatewar。CameronofLochiel，whoserentaldidnotexceed500l。ayear，carriedwithhimintotherebellion of1745，eighthundredmenraisedfromhisowntenantry。Butintheprogressofcivilization，aswealthbecomesthe principalmeansofdistinctionandinfluence，landownerspreferrenttodependents。Toobtainrent，that。