第5章

III。Themotiveswithwhichalonewehaveanyconcernaresuchasareofanaturetoactuponthewill。Byamotivethen，inthissenseoftheword，lstobeunderstoodanythingwhatsoever，which，byinfluencingthewillofasensitivebeing，issupposedtoserveasameansofdetermininghimtoact，orvoluntarilytoforbeartoact，uponanyoccasion。Motivesofthissort，incontradistinctiontotheformer，maybestyledpracticalmotives，ormotivesapplyingtopractice。 IV。Owingtothepovertyandunsettledstateoflanguage，thewordmotiveisemployedindiscriminatelytodenotetwokindsofobjects，which，forthebetterunderstandingofthesubject，itisnecessaryshouldbedistinguished。Onsomeoccasionsitisemployedtodenoteanyofthosereallyexistingincidentsfromwhencetheactinquestionissupposedtotakeitsrise。Thesenseitbearsontheseoccasionsmaybestyleditsliteralorunfigurativesense。Onotheroccasionsitisemployedtodenoteacertainfictitiousentity，apassion，anaffectionofthemind，anidealbeingwhichuponthehappeningofanysuchincidentisconsideredasoperatinguponthemind，andpromptingittotakethatcourse，towardswhichitisimpelledbytheinfluenceofsuchincident。MotivesofthisclassareAvarice，Indolence，Benevolence，andsoforth；asweshallseemoreparticularlyfartheron。Thislattermaybestyledthefigurativesenseofthetermmotive。 V。Astotherealincidentstowhichthenameofmotiveisalsogiven，thesetooareoftwoverydifferentkinds。Theymaybeeither，1。Theinternalperceptionofanyindividuallotofpleasureorpain，theexpectationofwhichislookeduponascalculatedtodetermineyoutoactinsuchorsuchamanner；asthepleasureofacquiringsuchasumofmoney，thepainofexertingyourselfonsuchanoccasion，andsoforth:or，2。Anyexternalevent，thehappeningwhereofisregardedashavingatendencytobringabouttheperceptionofsuchpleasureorsuchpain； forinstance，thecomingupofalotteryticket，bywhichthepossessionofthemoneydevolvestoyou；orthebreakingoutofafireinthehouseyouarein，whichmakesitnecessaryforyoutoquitit。Theformerkindofmotivesmaybetermedinterior，orinternal:thelatterexterior，orexternal。 VI。Twoothersensesofthetermmotiveneedalsotobedistinguished。 Motiverefersnecessarilytoaction。Itisapleasure，pain，orotherevent，thatpromptstoaction。Motivethen，inonesenseoftheword，mustbeprevioustosuchevent。But，foramantobegovernedbyanymotive，hemustineverycaselookbeyondthateventwhichiscalledhisaction；hemustlooktotheconsequencesofit:anditisonlyinthiswaythattheideaofpleasure，ofpain，orofanyotherevent，cangivebirthtoit。Hemustlook，therefore，ineverycase，tosomeeventposteriortotheactincontemplation:aneventwhichasyetexistsnot，butstandsonlyinprospect。Now，asitisinallcasesdifficult，andinmostcasesunnecessary，todistinguishbetweenobjectssointimatelyconnected，astheposteriorpossibleobjectwhichisthuglookedforwardto，andthepresentexistingobjectoreventwhichtakesplaceuponaman\'slookingforwardtotheother，theyarebothofthemspokenofunderthesameappellation，motive。 Todistinguishthem，theonefirstmentionedmaybetermedamotiveinprospect，theotheramotiveinesse:andundereachofthesedenominationswillcomeaswellexteriorasinternalmotives。 Afirebreaksoutinyourneighbour\'shouse:youareunderapprehensionofitsextendingtoyourown:youareapprehensive，thatifyoustayinit，youwillbeburnt:youaccordinglyrunoutofit。Thisthenistheact:theothersareallmotivestoit。Theeventofthefire\'sbreakingoutinyourneighbour\'shouseisanexternalmotive，andthatinesse:theideaorbeliefoftheprobabilityofthefire\'sextendingtoyourownhouse，thatofyourbeingburntifyoucontinue，andthepainyoufeelatthethoughtofsuchacatastrophe，areallsomanyinternalevents，butstillinesse:theeventofthefire\'sactuallyextendingtoyourownhouse，andthatofyourbeingactuallyburntbyit，externalmotivesinprospect:thepainyouwouldfeelatseeingyourhouseaburning，andthepainyouwouldfeelwhileyouyourselfwereburning，internalmotivesinprospect:whichevents，accordingasthematterturnsout，maycometobeinesse:butthenofcoursetheywillceasetoactasmotives。 VII。Ofallthesemotives，whichstandnearesttotheact，totheproductionofwhichtheyallcontribute，isthatinternalmotiveinessewhichconsistsintheexpectationoftheinternalmotiveinprospect: thepainoruneasinessyoufeelatthethoughtsofbeingburnt。Allothermotivesaremoreorlessremote:themotivesinprospect，inproportionastheperiodatwhichtheyareexpectedtohappenismoredistantfromtheperiodatwhichtheacttakesplace，andconsequentlylaterinpointoftime:themotivesinesse，inproportionastheyalsoaremoredistantfromthatperiod，andconsequentlyearlierinpointoftime。 VIII。Ithasalreadybeenobserved，thatwithmotivesofwhichtheinfluenceterminatesaltogetherintheunderstanding，wehavenothingheretodo。Ifthen，amongstobjectsthatarespokenofasmotiveswithreferencetotheunderstanding，therebeanywhichconcernushere，itisonlyinasfarassuchobjectsmay，throughthemediumoftheunderstanding，exerciseaninfluenceoverthewill。Itisinthisway，andinthiswayonly，thatanyobjects，invirtueofanytendencytheymayhavetoinfluencethesentimentofbelief，mayinapracticalsenseactinthecharacterofmotives。Anyobjects，bytendingtoinduceabeliefconcerningtheexistence，actual，orprobable，ofapracticalmotive； thatis，concerningtheprobabilityofamotiveinprospect，ortheexistenceofamotiveinesse；mayexerciseaninfluenceonthewill，andrankwiththoseothermotivesthathavebeenplacedunderthenameofpractical。Thepointingoutofmotivessuchasthese，iswhatwefrequentlymeanwhenwetalkofgivingreasons。Yourneighbour\'shouseisonfireasbefore。Iobservetoyou，thatatthelowerpartofyourneighbour\'shouseissomewood-work，whichjoinsontoyours；thattheflameshavecaughtthiswood-work，andsoforth；whichIdoinordertodisposeyoutobelieveasIbelieve，thatifyoustayinyourhousemuchlongeryouwillbeburnt。Indoingthis，then，Isuggestmotivestoyourunderstanding；whichmotives，bythetendencytheyhavetogivebirthtoorstrengthenapain，whichoperatesuponyouinthecharacterofaninternalmotiveinesse，jointheirforce，andactasmotivesuponthewill。 2。Nomotiveseitherconstantlygoodorconstantlybad。 IX。Inallthischainofmotives，theprincipalororiginallinkseemstobethelastinternalmotiveinprospect:itistothisthatalltheothermotivesinprospectowetheirmateriality:andtheimmediatelyactingmotiveitsexistence。Thismotiveinprospect，wesee，isalwayssomepleasure，orsomepain；somepleasure，whichtheactinquestionisexpectedtobeameansofcontinuingorproducing:somepainwhichitisexpectedtobeameansofdiscontinuingorpreventing。Amotiveissubstantiallynothingmorethanpleasureorpain，operatinginacertainmanner。 X。Now，pleasureisinitselfagood:nay，evensettingasideimmunityfrompain，theonlygood:painisinitselfanevil；and，indeed，withoutexception，theonlyevil；orelsethewordsgoodandevilhavenomeaning。Andthisisaliketrueofeverysortofpain，andofeverysortofpleasure。Itfollows，therefore，immediatelyandincontestibly，thatthereisnosuchthingasanysortofmotivethatisinitselfabadone。 XI。Itiscommon，however，tospeakofactionsasproceedingfromgoodorbadmotives:inwhichcasethemotivesmeantaresuchasareinternal。Theexpressionisfarfrombeinganaccurateone；andasitisapttooccurintheconsiderationofmosteverykindofoffence，itwillberequisitetosettletheprecisemeaningofit，andobservehowfaritquadrateswiththetruthofthings。 XII。Withrespecttogoodnessandbadness，asitiswithverythingelsethatisnotitselfeitherpainorpleasure，soisitwithmotives。Iftheyaregoodorbad，itisonlyonaccountoftheireffects: good，onaccountoftheirtendencytoproducepleasure，oravertpain:bad，onaccountoftheirtendencytoproducepain，oravertpleasure。Nowthecaseis，thatfromoneandthesamemotive，andfromeverykindofmotive，mayproceedactionsthataregood，othersthatarebad，andothersthatareindifferent。Thisweshallproceedtoshowwithrespecttoallthedifferentkindsofmotives，asdeterminedbythevariouskindsofpleasuresandpains。 XIII。Suchananalysis，usefulasitis，willbefoundtobeamatterofnosmalldifficultyowing，ingreatmeasure，toacertainperversityofstructurewhichprevailsmoreorlessthroughoutalllanguages。Tospeakofmotives，asofanythingelse，onemustcallthembytheirnames。Butthemisfortuneis，thatitisraretomeetwithamotiveofwhichthenameexpressesthatandnothingmore。Commonlyalongwiththeverynameofthemotive，istacitlyinvolvedapropositionimputingtoitacertainquality；aqualitywhich，inmanycases，willappeartoincludethatverygoodnessorbadness，concerningwhichwearehereinquiringwhether，properlyspeaking，itbeorbenotimputabletomotives。Tousethecommonphrase，inmostcases，thenameofthemotiveisawordwhichisemployedeitheronlyinagoodsense，orelseonlyinabadsense。Now，whenawordisspokenofasbeingusedinagoodsense，allthatisnecessarilymeantisthis:thatinconjunctionwiththeideaoftheobjectitisputtosignify，itconveysanideaofapprobation:thatis，ofapleasureorsatisfaction，entertainedbythepersonwhoemploysthetermatthethoughtsofsuchobject。Inlikemanner，whenawordisspokenofasbeingusedinabadsense，allthatisnecessarilymeantisthis:that，inconjunctionwiththeideaoftheobjectitisputtosignify，itconveysanideaofdisapprobation: thatis，ofadispleasureentertainedbythepersonwhoemploysthetermatthethoughtsofsuchobject。Now，thecircumstanceonwhichsuchapprobationisgroundedwill，asnaturallyasanyother，betheopinionofthegoodnessoftheobjectinquestion，asaboveexplained:such，atleast，itmustbe，upontheprincipleofutility:so，ontheotherhand，thecircumstanceonwhichanysuchdisapprobationisgrounded，will，asnaturallyasanyother，betheopinionofthebadnessoftheobject:such，atleast，itmustbe，inasfarastheprincipleofutilityistakenforthestandard。 Nowtherearecertainmotiveswhich，unlessinafewparticularcases，havescarcelyanyothernametobeexpressedbybutsuchawordasisusedonlyinagoodsense。Thisisthecase，forexample，withthemotivesofpietyandhonour。Theconsequenceofthisis，thatif，inspeakingofsuchamotive，amanshouldhaveoccasiontoapplytheepithetbadtoanyactionswhichhementionsasapttoresultfromit，hemustappeartobeguiltyofacontradictioninterms。Butthenamesofmotiveswhichhavescarcelyanyothernametobeexpressedby，butsuchawordasisusedonlyinabadsense，aremanymore。(Forthereason，seechap。xi。[Dispositions]，par。xvii。note。)Thisisthecase，forexample，withthemotivesoflustandavarice。Andaccordingly，ifinspeakingofanysuchmotive，amanshouldhaveoccasiontoapplytheepithetsgoodorindifferenttoanyactionswhichhementionsasapttoresultfromit，hemustherealsoappeartobeguiltyofasimilarcontradiction。 Thisperverseassociationofideascannot，itisevident，butthrowgreatdifficultiesinthewayoftheinquirynowbeforeus。 Confininghimselftothelanguagemostinuse，amancanscarceavoidrunning，inappearance，intoperpetualcontradictions。Hispropositionswillappear，ontheonehand，repugnanttotruth；andontheotherhand，adversetoutility。Asparadoxes，theywillexcitecontempt:asmischievousparadoxes，indignation。Forthetruthshelabourstoconvey，howeverimportant，andhoweversalutary，hisreaderisneverthebetter:andhehimselfismuchtheworse。Toobviatethisinconvenience，completely，hehasbutthisoneunpleasantremedy；tolayasidetheoldphraseologyandinventanewone。Happythemanwhoselanguageisductileenoughtopermithimthisresource。Topalliatetheinconvenience，wherethatmethodofobviatingitisimpracticable，hehasnothingleftforitbuttoenterintoalongdiscussion，tostatethewholematteratlarge，toconfess，thatforthesakeofpromotingthepurposes，hehasviolatedtheestablishedlawsoflanguage，andtothrowhimselfuponthemercyofhisreaders。 3。CatalogueofmotivescorrespondingtothatofPleasuresandPains。 XIV。Fromthepleasuresofthesenses，consideredinthegross，resultsthemotivewhich，inaneutralsense，maybetermedphysicaldesire:inabadsense，itistermedsensuality。Nameusedinagoodsenseithasnone。Ofthis，nothingcanbedetermined，tillitbeconsideredseparately，withreferencetotheseveralspeciesofpleasurestowhichitcorresponds。 XV。Inparticular，then，tothepleasuresofthetasteorpalatecorrespondsamotive，whichinaneutralsensehavingreceivednonamethatcanservetoexpressitinallcases，canonlybetermed，bycircumlocution，theloveofthepleasuresofthepalate。 Inparticularcasesitisstyledhunger:inothers，thirst。Theloveofgoodcheerexpressesthismotive，butseemstogobeyond: intimating，thatthepleasureistobepartakenofincompany，andinvolvingakindofsympathy。Inabadsense，itisstyledinsomecasesgreediness，voraciousness，gluttony:inothers，principallywhenappliedtochildren，lickerishness。Itmayinsomecasesalsoberepresentedbytheworddaintiness。Nameusedinagoodsenseithasnone。1。Aboy，whodoesnotwantforvictuals，stealsacakeoutofapastry-cook\'sshop，andeatsit。Inthiscasehismotivewillbeuniversallydeemedabadone:andifitbeaskedwhatitis，itmaybeanswered，perhaps，lickerishness。 2。Aboybuysacakeoutofapastry-cook\'sshop，andeatsit。Inthiscasehismotivecanscarcelybelookeduponaseithergoodorbad，unlesshismastershouldbeoutofhumourwithhim；andthenperhapshemaycallitlickerishness，asbefore。 Inbothcases，however，hismotiveisthesame。Itisneithermorenorlessthanthemotivecorrespondingtothepleasuresofthepalate。 XVI。Tothepleasuresofthesexualsensecorrespondsthemotivewhich，inaneutralsense，maybetermedsexualdesire。Inabadsense，itisspokenofunderthenameoflasciviousness，andavarietyofothernamesofreprobation。Nameusedinagoodsenseithasnone。 1。Amanravishesavirgin。Inthiscasethemotiveis，withoutscruple，termedbythenameoflust，lasciviousness，andsoforth； andisuniversallylookeduponasabadone。2。Thesameman，atanothertime，exercisestherightsofmarriagewithhiswife。Inthiscasethemotiveisaccounted，perhaps，agoodone，oratleastindifferent:andherepeoplewouldscrupletocallitbyanyofthosenames。Inbothcases，however，themotivemaybepreciselythesame。Inbothcasesitmaybeneithermorenorlessthansexualdesire。 XVII。Tothepleasuresofcuriositycorrespondsthemotiveknownbythesamename:andwhichmaybeotherwisecalledtheloveofnovelty，ortheloveofexperiment；and，onparticularoccasions，sport，andsometimesplay。 1。Aboy，inordertodiverthimself，readsanimprovingbook:themotiveisaccounted，perhaps，agoodone:atanyratenotabadone。2。Hesetshistopaspinning:themotiveisdeemed，atanyrate，notabadone。3。Hesetslooseamadoxamongacrowd；hismotiveisnow，perhaps，termedanabominableone。Yetinallthreecasesthemotivemaybetheverysame:itmaybeneithermorenorlessthancuriosity。 XVIII。Astotheotherpleasuresofsensetheyareoftoolittleconsequencetohavegivenanyseparatedenominationstothecorrespondingmotives。 XIX。Tothepleasuresofwealthcorrespondsthesortofmotivewhich，inaneutralsense，maybetermedpecuniaryinterest:inabadsense，itistermed，insomecases，avarice，covetousness，rapacity，orlucre:inothercases，niggardliness:inagoodsense，butonlyinparticularcases，economyandfrugality；andinsomecasesthewordindustrymaybeappliedtoit:inasensenearlyindifferent，butratherbadthanotherwise，itisstyled，thoughonlyinparticularcases，parsimony。 1。Formoneyyougratifyaman\'shatred，byputtinghisadversarytodeath。2。Formoneyyouploughhisfieldforhim——Inthefirstcaseyourmotiveistermedlucre，andisaccountedcorruptandabominable:andinthesecond，forwantofaproperappellation，itisstyledindustry；andislookeduponasinnocentatleast，ifnotmeritorious。Yetthemotiveisinbothcasespreciselythesame:itisneithermorenorlessthanpecuniaryinterest。 XX。Thepleasuresofskillareneitherdistinctenough，norofconsequenceenough，tohavegivenanynametothecorrespondingmotive。 XXI。Tothepleasuresofamitycorrespondsamotivewhich，inaneutralsense，maybetermedthedesireofingratiatingone\'sself。Inabadsenseitisincertaincasesstyledservility:inagoodsenseithasnonamethatispeculiartoit:inthecasesinwhichithasbeenlookedonwithafavourableeye，ithasseldombeendistinguishedfromthemotiveofsympathyorbenevolence，withwhich，insuchcases，itiscommonlyassociated。 1。Toacquiretheaffectionsofawomanbeforemarriage，topreservethemafterwards，youdoeverything，thatisconsistentwithotherduties，tomakeherhappy:inthiscaseyourmotiveislookeduponaslaudable，thoughthereisnonameforit。2。Forthesamepurpose，youpoisonawomanwithwhomsheisatenmity:inthiscaseyourmotiveislookeduponasabominable，thoughstillthereisnonameforit。3。Toacquireorpreservethefavourofamanwhoisricherormorepowerfulthanyourself，youmakeyourselfsubservienttohispleasures。Letthemevenbelawfulpleasures，ifpeoplechoosetoattributeyourbehaviourtothismotive，youwillnotgetthemtofindanyothernameforitthanservility。Yetinallthreecasesthemotiveisthesame:itisneithermorenorlessthanthedesireofingratiatingyourself。 XXII。Tothepleasuresofthemoralsanction，or，astheymayotherwisebecalled，thepleasuresofagoodname，correspondsamotivewhich，inaneutralsense，hasscarcelyyetobtainedanyadequateappellative。Itmaybestyled，theloveofreputation。 Itisnearlyrelatedtothemotivelastpreceding:beingneithermorenorlessthanthedesireofingratiatingone\'sselfwith，or，asinthiscaseweshouldrathersay，ofrecommendingone\'sselfto，theworldatlarge。Inagoodsense，itistermedhonour，orthesenseofhonour:orrather，thewordhonourisintroducedsomehoworotherupontheoccasionofitsbeingbroughttoview:forinstrictnessthewordhonourisputrathertosignifythatimaginaryobject，whichamanisspokenofaspossessingupontheoccasionofhisobtainingaconspicuousshareofthepleasuresthatareinquestion。Inparticularcases，itisstyledtheloveofglory。Inabadsense，itisstyled，insomecases，falsehonour；inothers，pride；inothers，vanity。Inasensenotdecidedlybad，butratherbadthanotherwise，ambition。Inanindifferentsense，insomecases，theloveoffame:inothers，thesenseofshame。 And，asthepleasuresbelongingtothemoralsanctionrunundistinguishablyintothepainsderivedfromthesamesource，itmayalsobestyled，insomecases，thefearofdishonour，thefearofdisgrace，thefearofinfamy，thefearofignominy，orthefearofshame。 1。Youhavereceivedanaffrontfromaman:accordingtothecustomofthecountry，inorder，ontheonehand，tosaveyourselffromtheshameofbeingthoughttobearitpatiently；ontheotherhand，toobtainthereputationofcourage；youchallengehimtofightwithmortalweapons。Inthiscaseyourmotivewillbysomepeoplebeaccountedlaudable，andstyledhonour:byothersitwillbeaccountedblameable，andthese，iftheycallithonour，willprefixanepithetofimprobationtoit，andcallitfalsehonour。 2。Inordertoobtainapostofrankanddignity，andtherebytoincreasetherespectspaidyoubythepublic，youbribetheelectorswhoaretoconferit，orthejudgebeforewhomthetitletoitisindispute。Inthiscaseyourmotiveiscommonlyaccountedcorruptandabominable，andisstyled，perhaps，bysomesuchnameasdishonestorcorruptambition，asthereisnosinglenameforit。3。Inordertoobtainthegood-willofthepublic，youbestowalargesuminworksofprivatecharityorpublicutility。Inthiscasepeoplewillbeaptnottoagreeaboutyourmotive。 Yourenemieswillputabadcolouruponit，andcallitostentation:yourfriends，tosaveyoufromthisreproach，willchoosetoimputeyourconductnottothismotivebuttosomeother:suchasthatofcharity(thedenominationinthiscasegiventoprivatesympathy)orthatofpublicspirit。4。Aking，forthesakeofgainingtheadmirationannexedtothenameofconqueror(wewillsupposepowerandresentmentoutofthequestion) engageshiskingdominabloodywar。Hismotive，bythemultitude(whosesympathyformillionsiseasilyoverbornebythepleasurewhichtheirimaginationfindsingapingatanynoveltytheyobserveintheconductofasingleperson)isdeemedanadmirableone。Menoffeelingandreflection，whodisapproveofthedominionexercisedbythismotiveonthisoccasion，withoutalwaysperceivingthatitisthesamemotivewhichinotherinstancesmeetswiththeirapprobation，deemitanabominableone；andbecausethemultitude，whoarethemanufacturersoflanguage，havenotgiventhemasimplenametocallitby，theywillcallitbysomesuchcompoundnameastheloveoffalsegloryorfalseambition。Yetinallfourcasesthemotiveisthesame:itisneithermorenorlessthantheloveofreputation。 XXIII。Tothepleasuresofpowercorrespondsthemotivewhich，inaneutralsense，maybetermedtheloveofpower。People，whoareoutofhumourwithitsometimes，callitthelustofpower。 Inagoodsense，itisscarcelyprovidedwithaname。Incertaincasesthismotive，aswellastheloveofreputation，areconfoundedunderthesamename，ambition。Thisisnottobewonderedat，consideringtheintimateconnexionthereisbetweenthetwomotivesinmanycases:sinceitcommonlyhappens，thatthesameobjectwhichaffordstheonesortofpleasure，affordstheothersortatthesametime:forinstance，offices，whichareatoncepostsofhonourandplacesoftrust:andsinceatanyratereputationistheroadtopower。 1。If，inordertogainaplaceinadministration，youpoisonthemanwhooccupiesit。2。If，inthesameview，youproposeasalutaryplanfortheadvancementofthepublicwelfare；yourmotiveisinbothcasesthesame。Yetinthefirstcaseitisaccountedcriminalandabominable:inthesecondcaseallowable，andevenlaudable。 XXIV。Tothepleasuresaswellastothepainsofthereligioussanctioncorrespondsamotivewhichhas，strictlyspeaking，noperfectlyneutralnameapplicabletoallcases，unlessthes，wordreligionbeadmittedinthischaracter:thoughthewordreligion，strictlyspeaking，seemstomeannotsomuchthemotiveitself，asakindoffictitiouspersonage，bywhomthemotiveissupposedtobecreated，oranassemblageofacts，supposedtobedictatedbythatpersonage:nordoesitseemtobecompletelysettledintoaneutralsense。Inthesamesenseitisalso，insomecases，styledreligiouszeal:inothercases，thefearofGod。TheloveofGod，thoughcommonlycontrastedwiththefearofGod，doesnotcomestrictlyunderthishead。Itcoincidesproperlywithamotiveofadifferentdenomination；viz。 akindofsympathyorgood-will，whichhastheDeityforitsobject。Inagoodsense，itisstyleddevotion，piety，andpiouszeal。 Inabadsense，itisstyled，insomecases，superstition，orsuperstitiouszeal:inothercases，fanaticism，orfanaticzeal:inasensenotdecidedlybad，becausenotappropriatedtothismotive，enthusiasm，orenthusiasticzeal。 1。InordertoobtainthefavouroftheSupremeBeing，amanassassinateshislawfulsovereign。Inthiscasethemotiveisnowalmostuniversallylookeduponasabominable，andistermedfanaticism: formerlyitwasbygreatnumbersaccountedlaudable，andwasbythemcalledpiouszeal。2。Inthesameview，amanlasheshimselfwiththongs。Inthiscase，inyonderhouse，themotiveisaccountedlaudable，andiscalledpiouszeal:inthenexthouseitisdeemedcontemptible，andcalledsuperstition。3。Inthesameview，amaneatsapieceofbread(oratleastwhattoexternalappearanceisapieceofbread)withcertainceremonies。Inthiscase，inyonderhouse，hismotiveislookeduponaslaudable，andisstyledpietyanddevotion:inthenexthouseitisdeemedabominable，andstyledsuperstition，asbefore: perhapsevenitisabsurdlystyledimpiety。4。Inthesameview，amanholdsacowbythetailwhileheisdying。OntheThamesthemotivewouldinthiscasebedeemedcontemptible，andcalledsuperstition。OntheGangesitisdeemedmeritorious，andcalledpiety。5。Inthesameview，amanbestowsalargesuminworksofcharity，orpublicutility。Inthiscasethemotiveisstyledlaudable，bythoseatleasttowhomtheworksinquestionappeartocomeunderthisdescription:andbytheseatleastitwouldbestyledpiety。Yetinallthesecasesthemotiveispreciselythesame:itisneithermorenorlessthanthemotivebelongingtothereligioussanction。 XXV。Tothepleasuresofsympathycorrespondsthemotivewhich，inaneutralsense，istermedgood-will。Thewordsympathymayalsobeusedonthisoccasion:thoughthesenseofitseemstoberathermoreextensive。Inagoodsense，itisstyledbenevolence:andincertaincases，philanthropy；and，inafigurativeway，brotherlylove；inothers，humanity；inothers，charity；inothers，pityandcompassion；inothers，mercy；inothers，gratitude；inothers，tenderness；inothers，patriotism；inothers，publicspirit。Loveisalsoemployedinthisasinsomanyothersenses。Inabadsense，ithasnonameapplicabletoitinallcases:inparticularcasesitisstyledpartiality。Thewordzeal，withcertainepithetsprefixedtoit，mightalsobeemployedsometimesonthisoccasion，thoughthesenseofitbemoreextensive； applyingsometimestoillaswellastogoodwill。Itisthuswespeakofpartyzeal，nationalzeal，andpubliczeal。Thewordattachmentisalsousedwiththelikeepithets:wealsosayfamily-attachment。TheFrenchexpression，espritdecorps，forwhichasyetthereseemstobescarcelyanynameinEnglish，mightberendered，insomecases，thoughratherinadequately，bythetermscorporationspirit，corporationattachment，orcorporationzeal。 1。Amanwhohassetatownonfireisapprehendedandcommitted:outofregardorcompassionforhim，youhelphimtobreakprison。Inthiscasethegeneralityofpeoplewillprobablyscarcelyknowwhethertocondemnyourmotiveortoapplaudit:thosewhocondemnyourconduct，willbedisposedrathertoimputeittosomeothermotive:iftheystyleitbenevolenceorcompassion，theywillbeforprefixinganepithet，andcallingitfalsebenevolenceorfalsecompassion。2。Themanistakenagain，andisputuponhistrial:tosavehimyouswearfalselyinhisfavour。People，whowouldnotcallyourmotiveabadonebefore，willperhapscallitsonow。3。Amanisatlawwithyouaboutanestate:hehasnorighttoit:thejudgeknowsthis，yet，havinganesteemoraffectionforyouradversary，adjudgesittohim。 Inthiscasethemotiveisbyeverybodydeemedabominable，andistermedinjusticeandpartiality。4。Youdetectastatesmaninreceivingbribes:outofregardtothepublicinterest，yougiveinformationofit，andprosecutehim。Inthiscase，byallwhoacknowledgeyourconducttohaveoriginatedfromthismotive，yourmotivewillbedeemedalaudableone，andstyledpublicspirit。Buthisfriendsandadherentswillnotchoosetoaccountforyourconductinanysuchmanner:theywillratherattributeittopartyenmity。5。Youfindamanonthepointofstarving:yourelievehim；andsavehislife。Inthiscaseyourmotivewillbyeverybodybeaccountedlaudable，anditwillbetermedcompassion，pity，charity，benevolence。Yetinallthesecasesthemotiveisthesame:itisneithermorenorlessthanthemotiveofgood-will。 XXVI。Tothepleasuresofmalevolence，orantipathy，correspondsthemotivewhich，inaneutralsense，istermedantipathyordispleasure:and，inparticularcases，dislike，aversion，abhorrence，andindignation:inaneutralsense，orperhapsasenseleaningalittletothebadside，ill-will:and，inparticularcases，anger，wrath，andenmity。Inabadsenseitisstyled，indifferentcases，wrath，spleen，ill-humour，hatred，malice，rancour，rage，fury，cruelty，tyranny，envy，jealousy，revenge，misanthropy，andbyothernames，whichitishardlyworthwhiletoendeavourtocollect。 Likegood-will，itisusedwithepithetsexpressiveofthepersonswhoaretheobjectsoftheaffection。Hencewehearofpartyenmity，partyrage，andsoforth。Inagoodsensethereseemstobenosinglenameforit。Incompoundexpressionsitmaybespokenofinsuchasense，byepithets，suchasjustandlaudable，prefixedtowordsthatareusedinaneutralornearlyneutralsense。 1。Yourobaman:heprosecutesyou，andgetsyoupunished:outofresentmentyousetuponhim，andhanghimwithyourownhands。Inthiscaseyourmotivewilluniversallybedeemeddetestable，andwillbecalledmalice，cruelty，revenge，andsoforth。 2。Amanhasstolenalittlemoneyfromyou:outofresentmentyouprosecutehim，andgethimhangedbycourseoflaw。Inthiscasepeoplewillprobablybealittledividedintheiropinionsaboutyourmotive:yourfriendswilldeemitalaudableone，andcallitajustorlaudableresentment:yourenemieswillperhapsbedisposedtodeemitblameable，andcallitcruelty，malice，revenge，andsoforth:toobviatewhich，yourfriendswilltryperhapstochangethemotive，andcallitpublicspirit。3。Amanhasmurderedyourfather:outofresentmentyouprosecutehim，andgethimputtodeathincourseoflaw。Inthiscaseyourmotivewillbeuniversallydeemedalaudableone，andstyled，asbefore，ajustorlaudableresentment:andyourfriends，inordertobringforwardthemoreamiableprinciplefromwhichthemalevolentone，whichwasyourimmediatemotive，tookitsrise，willbeforkeepingthelatteroutofsight，speakingoftheformeronly，undersomesuchnameasfilialpiety。Yetinallthesecasesthemotiveisthesame:itisneithermorenorlessthanthemotiveofill-will。 XXVII。Totheseveralsortsofpains，oratleasttoallsuchofthemasareconceivedtosubsistinanintensedegree，andtodeath，which，asfaraswecanperceive，istheterminationofallthepleasures，aswellasallthepainsweareacquaintedwith，correspondsthemotive，whichinaneutralsenseisstyled，ingeneral，self-preservation:thedesireofpreservingone\'sselffromthepainorevilinquestion。Nowinmanyinstancesthedesireofpleasure，andthesenseofpain，runintooneanotherundistinguishably。Self-preservation，therefore，wherethedegreeofthepainwhichitcorrespondstoisbutslightwillscarcelybedistinguishable，byanypreciseline，fromthemotivescorrespondingtotheseveralsortsofpleasures。Thusinthecaseofthepainsofhungerandthirst:physicalwantwillinmanycasesbescarcelydistinguishablefromphysicaldesire。Insomecasesitisstyled，stillinaneutralsense，self-defence。Betweenthepleasuresandthepainsofthemoralandreligioussanctions，andconsequentlyofthemotivesthatcorrespondtothem，aslikewisebetweenthepleasuresofamity，andthepainsofenmity，thiswantofboundarieshasalreadybeentakennoticeof。Thecaseisthesamebetweenthepleasuresofwealth，andthepainsofprivationcorrespondingtothosepleasures。Therearemanycases，therefore，inwhichitwillbedifficulttodistinguishthemotiveofself-preservationfrompecuniaryinterest，fromthedesireofingratiatingone\'sself，fromtheloveofreputation，andfromreligioushope:inwhichcases，thosemorespecificandexplicitnameswillnaturallybepreferredtothisgeneralandinexplicitone。Therearealsoamultitudeofcompoundnames，whicheitherarealreadyinuse，ormightbedevised，todistinguishthespecificbranchesofthemotiveofself-preservationfromthoseseveralmotivesofapleasurableorigin:suchasthefearofpoverty，thefearoflosingsuchorsuchaman\'sregard，thefearofshame，andthefearofGod。Moreover，totheevilofdeathcorresponds，inaneutralsense，theloveoflife；inabadsense，cowardice:whichcorrespondsalsotothepainsofthesenses，atleastwhenconsideredassubsistinginanacutedegree。Thereseemstobenonamefortheloveoflifethathasagoodsense； unlessitbethevagueandgeneralnameofprudence。 1。Tosaveyourselffrombeinghanged，pilloried，imprisoned，orfined，youpoisontheonlypersonwhocangiveevidenceagainstyou。Inthiscaseyourmotivewilluniversallybestyledabominable: butasthetermself-preservationhasnobadsense，peoplewillnotcaretomakethisuseofit:theywillbeaptrathertochangethemotive，andcallitmalice。2。Awoman，havingbeenjustdeliveredofanillegitimatechild，inordertosaveherselffromshame，destroysthechild，orabandonsit。Inthiscase，also，peoplewillcallthemotiveabadone，and，notcaringtospeakofitunderaneutralname，theywillbeapttochangethemotive，andcallitbysomesuchnameascruelty。3。Tosavetheexpenseofahalfpenny，yousufferaman，whomyoucouldpreserveatthatexpense，toperishwithwant，beforeyoureyes。Inthiscaseyourmotivewillbeuniversallydeemedanabominableone；and，toavoidcallingitbysoindulgentanameasself-preservation，peoplewillbeapttocallitavariceandniggardliness，withwhichindeedinthiscaseitindistinguishablycoincides:forthesakeoffindingamorereproachfulappellation，theywillbeaptlikewisetochangethemotive，andtermitcruelty。 4。Toputanendtothepainofhunger，youstealaloafofbread。Inthiscaseyourmotivewillscarcely，perhaps，bedeemedaverybadone；and，inordertoexpressmoreindulgenceforit，peoplewillbeapttofindastrongernameforitthanself-preservation，termingitnecessity。5。Tosaveyourselffromdrowning，youbeatoffaninnocentmanwhohasgotholdofthesameplank。Inthiscaseyourmotivewillingeneralbedeemedneithergoodnorbad，anditwillbetermedself-preservation，ornecessity，ortheloveoflife。6。Tosaveyourlifefromagangofrobbers，youkillthemintheconflict。Inthiscasethemotivemay，perhaps，bedeemedratherlaudablethanotherwise，and，besidesself-preservation，isstyledalsoself-defence。7。Asoldierissentoutuponapartyagainstaweakerpartyoftheenemy: beforehegetsupwiththem，tosavehislife，herunsaway。Inthiscasethemotivewilluniversallybedeemedacontemptibleone，andwillbecalledcowardice。Yetinallthesevariouscases，themotiveisstillthesame。Itisneithermorenorlessthanself-preservation。 XXVIII。Inparticular，tothepainsofexertioncorrespondsthemotive，which，inaneutralsense，maybetermedtheloveofease，orbyalongercircumlocution，thedesireofavoidingtrouble。 Inabadsense，itistermedindolence。Itseemstohavenonamethatcarrieswithitagoodsense。 1。Tosavethetroubleoftakingcareofit，aparentleaveshischildtoperish。Inthiscasethemotivewillbedeemedanabominableone，and，becauseindolencewillseemtoomildanameforit，themotivewill，perhaps，bechanged，andspokenofundersomesuchtermascruelty。2。Tosaveyourselffromanillegalslavery，youmakeyourescape。Inthiscasethemotivewillbedeemedcertainlynotabadone:and，becauseindolence，oreventheloveofease，willbethoughttoounfavourableanameforit，itwill，perhaps，bestyledtheloveofliberty。3。Amechanic，inordertosavehislabour，makesanimprovementinhismachinery。Inthiscase，peoplewilllookuponhismotiveasagoodone；andfindingnonameforitthatcarriesagoodsense，theywillbedisposedtokeepthemotiveoutofsight:theywillspeakratherofhisingenuity，thanofthemotivewhichwasthemeansofhismanifestingthatquality。Yetinallthesecasesthemotiveisthesame:itisneithermorenorlessthantheloveofease。 XXIX。Itappearsthenthatthereisnosuchthingasanysortofmotivewhichisabeadoneinitself:nor，consequently，anysuchthingasasortofmotive，whichinitselfisexclusivelyagoodone。 Andastotheireffects，itappearstoothatthesearesometimesbad，atothertimeseitherindifferentorgood:andthisappearstobethecasewitheverysortofmotive。Ifanysortofmotivetheniseithergoodorbadonthescoreofitseffects，thisisthecaseonlyonindividualoccasions，andwithindividualmotives；andthisisthecasewithonesortofmotiveaswellaswithanother。Ifanysortofmotivethencan，inconsiderationofitseffects，betermedwithanyproprietyabadone，itcanonlybewithreferencetothebalanceofalltheeffectsitmayhavehadofbothkindswithinagivenperiod，thatis，ofitsmostusualtendency。 XXX。Whatthen？(itwillbesaid)arenotlust，cruelty，avarice，badmotives？Istheresomuchasanyoneindividualeoccasion，inwhichmotiveslikethesecanbeotherwisethanbad？No，certainly: andyettheproposition，thatthereisnoonesortofmotivebutwhatwillonmanyoccasionsbeagoodone，isneverthelesstrue。Thefactis，thatthesearenameswhich，ifproperlyapplied，areneverappliedbutinthecaseswherethemotivestheysignifyhappentobebad。Thenamesofthosemotives，consideredapartfromtheireffects，aresexualdesire，displeasure，andpecuniaryinterest。Tosexualdesire，whentheeffectsofitarelookeduponasbad，isgiventhenameoflust。Nowlustisalwaysabadmotive。Why？Becauseifthecasebesuch，thattheeffectsofthemotivearenotbad，itdoesnotgo，oratleastoughtnottogo，bythenameoflust。Thecaseis，then，thatwhenIsay，？Lustisabadmotive？itisapropositionthatmerelyconcernstheimportofthewordlust；andwhichwouldbefalseiftransferredtotheotherwordusedforthesamemotive，sexualdesire。Henceweseetheemptinessofallthoserhapsodiesofcommon-placemorality，whichconsistinthetakingofsuchnamesaslust，cruelty，andavarice，andbrandingthemwithmarksofreprobation:appliedtothething，theyarefalse； appliedtothename，theyaretrueindeed，butnugatory。 Wouldyoudoarealservicetomankind，showthemthecasesinwhichsexualdesiremeritsthenameoflust；displeasure，thatofcruelty；andpecuniaryinterest，thatofavarice。 XXXI。Ifitwerenecessarytoapplysuchdenominationsasgood，bad，andindifferenttomotives，theymightbeclassedinthefollowingmanner，inconsiderationofthemostfrequentcomplexionoftheireffects。Intheclassofgoodmotivesmightbegsplacedthearticlesof，1。Good-will。2。Loveofreputation。3。Desireofamity。And，4。Religion。Intheclassofbadmotives，5。 Displeasure。Intheclassofneutralorindifferentmotives，6。Physicaldesire。7。Pecuniaryinterest。8。Loveofpower。9。 Self-preservation；asincludingthefearofthepainsofthesenses，theloveofease，andtheloveoflife。 XXXII。Thismethodofarrangement，however，cannotbutbeimperfect； andthenomenclaturebelongingtoitisindangerofbeingfallacious。Forbywhatmethodofinvestigationcanamanbeassured，thatwithregardtothemotivesrankedunderthenameofgood，thegoodeffectstheyhavehad，fromthebeginningoftheworld，have，ineachofthefourspeciescomprisedunderthisname，beensuperiortothebad？stillmoredifficultywouldamanfindinassuringhimself，thatwithregardtothosewhicharerankedunderthenameofneutralorindifferent，theeffectstheyhavehadhaveexactlybalancedeachother，thevalueofthegoodbeingneithergreaternorlessthanthatofthebad。Itistobeconsidered，thattheinterestsofthepersonhimselfcannomorebeleftoutoftheestimate，thanthoseoftherestofthecommunity。Forwhatwouldbecomeofthespecies，ifitwerenotforthemotivesofhungerandthirst，sexualdesire，thefearofpain，andtheloveoflife？Norintheactualconstitutionofhumannatureisthemotiveofdispleasurelessnecessary，perhaps，thananyoftheothers:althoughasystem，inwhichthebusinessoflifemightbecarriedonwithoutit，mightpossiblybeconceived。Itseems，therefore，thattheycouldscarcely，withoutgreatdangerofmistakes，bedistinguishedinthismannerevenwithreferencetoeachother。 XXXIII。Theonlyway，itshouldseem，inwhichamotivecanwithsafetyandproprietybestyledgoodorbad，iswithreferencetoitseffectsineachindividualinstance；andprincipallyfromtheintentionitgivesbirthto:fromwhicharise，aswillbeshownhereafter，themostmaterialpartofitseffects。Amotiveisgood，whentheintentionitgivesbirthtoisagoodone；bad，whentheintentionisabadone:andanintentionisgoodorbad，accordingtothematerialconsequencesthataretheobjectsofit。Sofarisitfromthegoodnessoftheintention\'sbeingtobeknownonlyfromthespeciesofthemotive。Butfromoneandthesamemotive，aswehaveseen，mayresultintentionsofeverysortofcomplexionwhatsoever。Thiscircumstance，therefore，canaffordnoclueforthearrangementoftheseveralsortsofmotives。 XXXIV。Amorecommodiousmethod，therefore，itshouldseem，wouldbetodistributethemaccordingtotheinfluencewhichtheyappeartohaveontheinterestsoftheothermembersofthecommunity，layingthoseofthepartyhimselfoutofthequestion:towit，accordingtothetendencywhichtheyappeartohavetounite，ordisunite，hisinterestsandtheirs。Onthisplantheymaybedistinguishedintosocial，dissocial，andself-regarding。 Inthesocialclassmaybereckoned，1。Good-will。2。 Loveofreputation。3。Desireofamity。4。Religion。Inthedissocialmaybeplaced，5。Displeasure。Intheself-regardingclass，6。 Physicaldesire。7。Pecuniaryinterest。8。Loveofpower。9。Self-preservation； asincludingthefearofthepainsofthesenses，theloveofease，andtheloveoflife。 XXXV。Withrespecttothemotivesthathavebeentermedsocial，ifanyfartherdistinctionshouldbeofuse，tothatofgood-willalonemaybeappliedtheepithetofpurely-social；whiletheloveofreputation，thedesireofamity，andthemotiveofreligion，maytogetherbecomprisedunderthedivisionofsemi-social: thesocialtendencybeingmuchmoreconstantandunequivocalintheformerthaninanyofthethreelatter。Indeedtheselast，socialastheymaybetermed，areself-regardingatthesametime。 4。Orderofpre-eminenceamongmotives。 XXXVI。Ofallthesesortsofmotives，good-willisthatofwhichthedictates，takeninageneralview，aresurestofcoincidingwiththoseoftheprincipleofutility。Forthedictatesofutilityareneithernorlessthanthedictatesofthemostextensive(seech。 iv。andch。vi。par。xxi。)andenlightened(thatiswell-advised)benevolence。 Thedictatesoftheothermotivesmaybeconformabletothoseofutility，orrepugnant，asitmayhappen。 XXXVII。Inthis，however，itistakenforgranted，thatinthecaseinquestionthedictatesofbenevolencearenotcontradictedbythoseofamoreextensive，thatisenlarged，benevolence。Nowwhenthedictatesofbenevolence，asrespectingtheinterestsofacertainsetofpersons，arerepugnanttothedictatesofthesamemotive，asrespectingthemoreimportant(orvaluable) interestsofanothersetofpersons，theformerdictates，itisevident，arerepealed，asitwere，bythelatter:andaman，werehetobegovernedbytheformer，couldscarcely，withpropriety，besaidtobegovernedbythedictatesofbenevolence。Onthisaccountwerethemotivesonbothsidessuretobealikepresenttoaman\'smind，thecaseofsucharepugnancywouldhardlybeworthdistinguishing，sincethepartialbenevolencemightbeconsideredasswallowedupinthemoreextensive:iftheformerprevailed，andgovernedtheaction，itmustbeconsideredasnotowingitsbirthtobenevolence，buttosomeothermotive:ifthelatterprevailed，theformermightbeconsideredashavingnoeffect。 Butthecaseis，thatapartialbenevolencemaygoverntheaction，withoutenteringintoanydirectcompetitionwiththemoreextensivebenevolence，whichwouldforbidit；becausetheinterestsofthelessnumerousassemblageofpersonsmaybepresenttoaman\'smind，atatimewhenthoseofthemorenumerousareeithernotpresent，or，ifpresent，makenoimpression。 Itisinthiswaythatthedictatesofthismotivemayberepugnanttoutility，yetstillbethedictatesofbenevolence。Whatmakesthoseofprivatebenevolenceconformableuponthewholetotheprincipleofutility，is，thatingeneraltheystandunopposedbythoseofpublic:iftheyarerepugnanttothem，itisonlybyaccident。Whatmakesthemthemoreconformable，is，thatinacivilizedsociety，inmostofthecasesinwhichtheywouldofthemselvesbeapttoruncountertothoseofpublicbenevolence，theyfindthemselvesopposedbystrongermotivesoftheself-regardingclass，whichareplayedoffagainstthembythelaws；andthatitisonlyincaseswheretheystandunopposedbytheothermoresalutarydictates，thattheyareleftfree。Anactofinjusticeorcruelty，committedbyamanforthesakeofhisfatherorhisson，ispunished，andwithreason，asmuchasifitwerecommittedforhisown。 XXXVIII。Aftergood-will，themotiveofwhichthedictatesseemtohavethenextbestchanceforcoincidingwiththoseofutility，isthatoftheloveofreputation。Thereisbutonecircumstancewhichpreventsthedictatesofthismotivefromcoincidinginallcaseswiththoseoftheformer。Thisis，thatmenintheirlikingsanddislikings，inthedispositionstheymanifesttoannextoanymodeofconducttheirapprobationortheirdisapprobation，andinconsequencetothepersonwhoappearstopracticeit，theirgoodortheirillwill，donotgovernthemselvesexclusivelybytheprincipleofutility。sometimesitistheprincipleofasceticismtheyareguidedby:sometimestheprincipleofsympathyandantipathy。Thereisanothercircumstance，whichdiminishes，nottheirconformitytotheprincipleofutility，butonlytheirefficacyincomparisonwiththedictatesofthemotiveofbenevolence。Thedictatesofthismotivewilloperateasstronglyinsecretasinpublic:whetheritappearslikelythattheconductwhichtheyrecommendwillbeknownornot:thoseoftheloveofreputationwillcoincidewiththoseofbenevolenceonlyinproportionasaman\'sconductseemslikelytobeknown。Thiscircumstance，however，doesnotmakesomuchdifferenceasatfirstsightmightappear。Acts，inproportionastheyarematerial，areapttobecomeknown:andinpointofreputation，theslightestsuspicionoftenservesforproof。Besides，ifanactbeadisreputableone，itisnotanyassuranceamancanhaveofthesecrecyoftheparticularactinquestion，thatwillofcoursesurmounttheobjectionshemayhaveagainstengaginginit。Thoughtheactinquestionshouldremainsecret，itwillgotowardsformingahabit，whichmaygivebirthtootheracts，thatmaynotmeetwiththesamegoodfortune。Thereisnohumanbeing，perhaps，whoisatyearsofdiscretion，onwhomconsiderationsofthissorthavenotsomeweight:andtheyhavethemoreweightuponaman，inproportiontothestrengthofhisintellectualpowers，andthefirmnessofhismind。Addtothis，theinfluencewhichhabititself，whenonceformed，hasinrestrainingamanfromactstowardswhich，fromtheviewofthedisreputeannexedtothem，aswellasfromanyothercause，hehascontractedanaversion。Theinfluenceofhabit，insuchcases，isamatteroffact，which，thoughnotreadilyaccountedfor，isacknowledgedandindubitable。 XXXIX。Afterthedictatesoftheloveofreputationcome，asitshouldseem，thoseofthedesireofamity。Theformeraredisposedtocoincidewiththoseofutility，inasmuchastheyaredisposedtocoincidewiththoseofbenevolence。Nowthoseofthedesireofamityareaptalsotocoincide，inacertainsort，withthoseofbenevolence。Butthesortofbenevolencewiththedictatesofwhichtheloveofreputationcoincides，isthemoreextensive； thatwithwhichthoseofthedesireofamitycoincide，thelessextensive。Thoseoftheloveofamityhavestill，however，theadvantageofthoseoftheself-regardingmotives。Theformer，atoneperiodorotherofhislife，disposeamantocontributetothehappinessofaconsiderablenumberofpersons:thelatter，fromthebeginningoflifetotheendofit，confinethemselvestothecareofthatsingleindividual。Thedictatesofthedesireofamity，itisplain，willapproachnearertoacoincidencewiththoseoftheloveofreputation，andthencewiththoseofutility，inproportion，cæ；terisparibas，tothenumberofthepersonswhoseamityamanhasoccasiontodesire:andhenceitis，forexample，thatanEnglishmemberofparliament，withallhisownweaknesses，andallthefolliesofthepeoplewhoseamityhehastocultivate，isprobably，ingeneral，abettercharacterthanthesecretaryofavisieratConstantinople，orofanaibinIndostan。 XL。Thedictatesofreligionare，undertheinfinitediversityofreligions，soextremelyvariable，thatitisdifficulttoknowwhatgeneralaccounttogiveofthem，orinwhatranktoplacethemotivetheybelongto。Uponthementionofreligion，people\'sfirstthoughtsturnnaturallytothereligiontheythemselvesprofess。Thisisagreatsourceofmiscalculation，andhasatendencytoplacethissortofmotiveinahigherrankthanitdeserves。Thedictatesofreligionwouldcoincide，inallcases，withthoseofutility，weretheBeing，whoistheobjectofreligion，universallysupposedtobeasbenevolentasheissupposedtobewiseandpowerful；andwerethenotionsentertainedofhisbenevolence，atthesametime，ascorrectasthosewhichareentertainedofhiswisdomandhispower。Unhappily，however，neitheroftheseisthecase。Heisuniversallysupposedtobeall-powerful:forbytheDeity，whatelsedoesanymanmeanthantheBeing，whateverhebe，bywhomeverythingisdone。Andastoknowledge，bythesamerulethatheshouldknowonethingheshouldknowanother。Thesenotionsseemtobeascorrect，forallmaterialpurposes，astheyareuniversal。Butamongthevotariesofreligion(ofwhichnumberthemultifariousfraternityofChristiansisbutasmallpart)thereseemtobebutfew(Iwillnotsayhowfew)whoarerealbelieversinhisbenevolence。Theycallhimbenevolentinwords，buttheydonotmeanthatheissoinreality。Theydonotmean，thatheisbenevolentasmanisconceivedtobebenevolent:theydonotmeanthatheisbenevolentintheonlysenseinwhichbenevolencehasameaning。Foriftheydid，theywouldrecognizethatthedictatesofreligioncouldbeneithermorenorlessthanthedictatesofutility:notatittledifferent:notatittlelessormore。Butthecaseis，thatonathousandoccasionstheyturntheirbacksontheprincipleofutility。 Theygoastrayafterthestrangeprinciplesitsantagonists:sometimesitistheprincipleofasceticism:sometimestheprincipleofsympathyandantipathy。Accordingly，theideatheybearintheirminds，onsuchoccasions，isbuttoooftentheideaofmalevolence；towhichidea，strippingitofitsownpropername，theybestowthespeciousappellationofthesocialmotive。Thedictatesofreligion，inshort，arenootherthanthedictatesofthatprinciplewhichhasbeenalreadymentionedunderthenameofthetheologicalprinciple。These，ashasbeenobserved，arejustasitmayhappen，accordingtothebiasesofthepersoninquestion，copiesofthedictatesofoneorotherofthethreeoriginalprinciples:sometimes，indeed，ofthedictatesofutility:butfrequentlyofthoseofasceticism，orthoseofsympathyandantipathy。